.  tf^'    U.  C.  L  A. 
FDUC.  DEPT. 


•i.-f>^-  '*; 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


DISSENTING    ACADEMIES 
IN    ENGLAND 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 
C.   F.   CLAY,   Manager. 
aottHoii:    FETTER  LANE,   E.G. 
(aftJinJmtgJ):  1°°  PRINCES  STREET 


^tin  gork:  G,  P.   PUTNAM'S  SONS 

«ombBs  anti  ttalcutta:  MACMILT.AN  AND  CO.,  Ltd. 

eroronto:   J.  M.  DENT  AND  SONS,  Ltd. 

THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 


A//  rights  resei-ved 


DISSENTING    ACADEMIES 
IN    ENGLAND 

Their    Rise    and    Progress    and    their    Place 

among    the    Educational    Systems 

of  the    Country 

by 
IRENE   PARKER,   M.A. 

Tutor  and  Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Education, 
Cherwell  Hall,  Oxford 


Cambridge : 

at  the  University   Press 

1914 

u.  c.  I.  a; 

FCrC.  DEPT. 


CambtilJgf:  ■-. 

PRINTED   BY  JOHN   CLAY,    M.A. 
AT  THE   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 


U.   U    L,    R. 

EDUC.  DEPT. 


Education 
Libraiy 

LB 


TO 

MY    FATHER 

TO    WHOM    I    OWE    MY    INTEREST 
BOTH    IN    NONCONFORMITY    AND    EDUCATION 


944990 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/dissentingacademOOparkiala 


A2^ 


PREFACE 

TT  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  contribution 
-^  made  to  Education  by  Puritanism  and  Dissent 
has  not  yet  been  fully  investigated.  The  subject  is 
a  vast  one  and  it  was  with  the  hope  of  touching  upon 
the  fringe  of  it  that  a  few  years  ago  I  devoted  my 
leisure  time  to  making  an  inquiry  into  the  part  played 
by  the  Dissenting  Academies.  No  one  can  reahze 
more  clearly  than  I  how  totally  inadequate  is  the 
account  here  given;  if  it  serve  to  show  that  there 
exists  a  field  worthy  of  research  the  labour  will  be 
amply  repaid. 

I  should  like  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to 
Sir  Alfred  Dale  and  Professor  Campagnac  for  valuable 
help  and  encouragement  in  my  work,  and  to  Dr  Selbie 
for  kindness  in  seeing  it  through  the  press. 

IRENE   PARKER. 
Oxford,  1914. 


CONTENTS 
PART  I 

PAGE 

General  Introduction  showing  the   Development 

OF  Realism  in  England i 

PART  II 
The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Dissenting  Academies       45 

PART  III 


The  Place  of  the  Dissenting  Academies  among  the 
Educational  Systems  in  England 

Appendix  I.     The  Chief  Dissenting  Academies 

,,         II.     Course    at   Kibworth   under   Rev.   John 
Jennings       .         .         .         »         . 

„       III.     Disciphne  in  Dissenting  Academies 

„        IV.     Warrington  (Period  III)  Library     . 

,         V.     Students  at  Warrington  (Period  III) 

,;        VI.     Priestley's     Suggestions     for     Study     of 
History  and  Geography 

Index  


124 
137 

143 
147 
154 
159 

161 
164 


y 


SOURCES 

The  following  are  the  most  important  books  which 
have  been  consulted. 

Abbey  and  Overton.     The  English  Church  in  the  Eighteenth 

Century. 
Aiken.  John.  Life  of. 

BOGUE  and  Bennett.     History  of  Dissenters. 
Brown,  E.  E.     Monograph  on  Secondary  Education  in  U.S. A . 
Calamy.     Account  of  Silenced  Ministers. 

—  Continuation  of  the  Account. 

—  History  of  his  own  Life  and  Times. 

—  Abridgement  of  Baxter's  Life. 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  vols,  i,  ii,  vi. 
Castle  Hill  Church,  Northampton,  History  of. 
Clark.     Life  and  Times  of  Antony  Wood. 

—  Reminiscences  of  Oxford. 
Clegg,  James.     Diary  of. 

—  Life  of  Rev.  John  Ashe. 

Cowley,  A.     Proposition  for  the  Advancement  of  Experimental 

Philosophy. 
Dale,  R.  W.     History  of  Congregationalism  in  England. 
Davies.     The  Tewkesbury  Academy  with  sketches  of  its  Tutor 

and  Students. 
De  Montmorency.     The  Progress  of  Education  in  England. 

—  State  Intervention  in  Education. 

Defoe.     Earlier   Life   and   chief  Early   Works    of.     Ed.   H. 

Morley. 
DiRCKS.     Biographical  Memoir  of  S.  Hartlib. 
Documents  relating  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity. 
DuRY,  J.     The  Reformed  School. 
Gibbon.     Memoirs  of  my  Life  and  Writings. 
Gibbons,  Thos.     Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Isaac  Watts. 


Sources  xi 


Gordon.     Early  Nonconformity  and  Education.       '— •""'^ 

Graves.     Peter  Ramus. 

Green,    J.    R.     Studies    in    Oxford    History    chiefly    in    the 

Eighteenth  Century. 
Grove,  H.  Works  of. 
Hall,  John.     An  Humble  motion  to  the  Parliament  of  England 

concerning  the  advancement  of  learning. 
Halley.     Lancashire  Puritanism  and  Nonconformity. 
Hartlib,  S.     True  and  Readie  Way  to  learne  the  Latin  Tongue. 

—  Considerations    leading    to    the   Happy  Accomplishment 
of  England's  Reformation  in  Church  and  State. 

Henry,  M.     Life  of  P.  Henry. 

Hester,  Giles.     Attercliffe  as  a  Seat  of  Learning. 

Heywood,  Oliver.     Autobiography  and  Diaries  of. 

How,    S.     Sufficiency   of  Spirit's    Teaching   without   Humane 

learning. 
Hull.     Economic  Writings  of  Sir  W.  Petty. 
Humphreys.     Correspondence  and  diary  of  P.  Doddridge . 
Hunter,  Joseph.     The  Rise  of  the  old  Dissent  as  exemplified 

in  the  life  of  Oliver  Heywood. 
Hurdie.     Vindication  of  Magdalen  College  from  the  Aspersions 

of  Mr  Gibbon. 
Huxley.     Essay  on  Joseph  Priestley. 
Leach,  A.  F.     History  of  Winchester  College. 

—  Grammar  Schools  at  Reformation.  ^"^ 

—  Educational  Charters  and  Documents. 
McDonnell.     History  of  St  Paul's  School. 
Magrath.     The  Flemings  in  Oxford. 
Mann,  H.     Education  in  Great  Britain. 

Manuscript  Accounts  of  Ministers  (Dr  Williams's  Library). 
Masson.     Life  of  Milton. 

Monthly  Repository — especially  vols,  iv,  v,  viii,  xi. 
Mullinger.     The   University  of  Cambridge. 
Newcome,  H.     Diary  and  Autobiography  of. 
Newth.    Senatus  Academicus  (Associated  Theological  Colleges). 
Nightingale.     Non-conformity  in  Lancashire. 
Orton.      Memoirs    of    the   Life,    Character    and    Writings    of 
Rev.  P.  Doddridge. 


xii  Sources 

Peacham.     Compleat  Gentleman. 

Petty.     Advice  of  W.  P.  to  Mr  S.  H.  for  the  advancement  of 

learning. 
Poole,  Mat.     Model  for  the  maintaining  of  stttdents  of  choice 

abilities  at  the  Universities. 
Priestley.     Miscellaneous  Works  (Essay  on  Education). 

—  Rudiments  of  English  Grammar. 

Proceedings  at  the  Opening  of  Manchester  College,  Oxford. 
Rait.     Life  in  the  Medieval  University. 
RuTT.     Life  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley. 
Stoughton.     Ph.  Doddridge,  his  life  and  labours. 

—  Religion  under  Queen  Anne  and  the  Georges. 
TouLMiN.     Historical  view  of  the  State  of  Protestant  Dissenters 

in  England. 
Transactions    of    the    Historical    Society    of    Lancashire    and 

Cheshire. 
Transactions  of  the  Congregational  Historical  Society. 
Turner.     Lives  of  Eminent  Unitarians. 
Victoria  County  Histories. 
Wakefield,  Gilbert.     Autobiography  of. 
Watson.     The  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Subjects 

in  England. 
Ward,  Seth.     Vindiciae  Academiarum. 
Webster.     Examination  of  Academies. 
Wesley-Palmer  Controversy  Letters. 
Wilson,   Walter.       History    and   Antiquities    of  Dissenting 

Churches    and   meeting   houses,   London,  Westminster  and 

Southwark. 
Wood,  Antony.     History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Colleges  and 

Halls  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Woodward,  H.     A  Light  to  Grammar. 

—  Gate  to  the  Sciences.  \ 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  REALISM  IN  ENGLAND 

The  development  of  educational  opinion  has  been 
so  remarkable  during  the  last  century  that  it  is  gener- 
ally held  that  all  our  modern  educational  ideas  had 
their  birth  after  1800.  No  greater  mistake  can  be 
made.  The  fundamental  principles  of  modem  English 
education  were  in  process  of  formation  during  the  two 
preceding  centuries.  The  period  covered  by  the  years 
1600-1800  is  the  one  in  which  the  education  of  the 
middle  classes  in  '  modem '  subjects  was  first  not 
merely  advocated  but  attempted.  It  was  advocated 
chiefly  by  the  Puritans  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th 
century ;  it  was  attempted  by  the  Tutors  of  the  Dis- 
senting Academies.  Before  describing  the  work  of 
these  Academies  it  is  necessary  to  trace  the  rise  of  the 
educational  principles  to  which  they  gave  expression. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  our  three 
great  educational  systems,  the  University,  the  Gram- 
mar School  and  the  Elementary  School  were  all  in 
existence.  The  elementary  school,  represented  by  the 
old  song,  writing,  and  cyphering  schools  (which  cannot 
here  be  dealt  with)  gave  boys  the  education  required 
on  their  entrance  to  secondary  education  in  the  gram- 
mar schools.    The  universities  and  grammar  schools 

p.  D.  A.  I 


The  Development  of 


axe  both  very  ancient  systems  ;  the  former  date  back 
to  the  I2th  century  ;  the  latter  to  the  coming  of  Chris- 
tian missionaries  to  the  Enghsh, 

The  grammar  or  language  schools  {ludus  literarius) 
have  their  origin  in  the  Cathedral  schools  founded 
quite  early  in  the  history  of  the  Church  in  this  country. 
Augustine  and  his  fellow  missionaries  were  not  long  in 
finding  that  preaching  had  to  be  supplemented  by 
teaching  ;  converts  had  to  be  trained  to  help  in  the 
Christianization  of  the  whole  country  and  to  take  part 
in  the  services  of  the  Church.  Very  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  Churches  therefore,  schools,  modelled 
on  those  of  Rome  in  which  the  missionaries  themselves 
had  been  educated  and  where  they  had  probably  taught, 
were  started  often  in  some  part  of  the  Church  building 
itself  and  later,  when  our  Cathedrals  were  built,  schools 
attached  to  them  were  built  also.  The  earliest  record 
of  the  establishment  of  such  a  school  is  as  follows  :  '  At 
this  time  (631) . .  .After  his  (Sigebert,  King  of  the  East 
Angles)  return  home,  as  soon  as  he  obtained  the  throne, 
wishing  to  imitate  what  he  had  seen  well  ordered  among 
the  Gauls,  he  set  up  a  school  in  which  boys  might  be 
taught  grammar.  He  was  assisted  therein  by  Bishop 
Felix,  who  came  to  him  from  Kent,  and  provided  them 
with  pedagogues  and  masters  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Canterbury  men^.'  This  of  course  indicates  that  a 
grammar  school  had  been  already  established  in  Canter- 
bury. It  will  be  remembered  that  Alcuin,  the  school- 
master of  York,  was  persuaded  to  leave  England  to 
teach  in  the  schools  founded  by  Charlemagne. 

From  the  first,  then,  education  was  regarded  as  a 

^  A.  F.  Leach,  Educational  Charters,  p.  3. 


Realism  in  England 


branch  of  Church  work ;  '  the  school  was  an  adjunct 
of  the  Church,'  The  close  connection  thus  established 
had  a  profound  and  far-reaching  effect ;  it  at  once 
determined  control  and  curriculum.  At  the  head  of  a 
Cathedral  school  was  a  cleric,  the  greater  part  of  whose 
time  was  given  to  teaching.  Both  as  cleric  and  school- 
master he  was  subject  to  his  bishop  who  consequently 
exercised  a  very  definite  control  over  the  school.  So 
natural  and  even  necessary  did  this  Church  control 
seem  that  later,  when  schools  were  founded  by  the 
Guilds  or  hospitals  or  by  private  people,  the  founders 
invariably  placed  them  under  ecclesiastical  supervision^. 
The  curriculum  also  was  influenced  by  this  con- 
nection with  the  Church.  The  Catholic  schools  were 
founded  to  train  clergymen  and  they  had  therefore  to 
teach  Latin,  which  was  not  merely  the  language  of  the 
Church,  but  the  one  language  of  educated  Christendom. 
Latin,  therefore,  was  not  merely  a  subject,  it  was  the 
subject — it  was,  in  fact,  the  whole  curriculum.  The 
language  or  grammar  schools  were  the  only  schools 
which  during  the  Middle  Ages  provided  a  classical 
education — a  definite  distinction  must  be  made  be- 
tween them  and  the  monastery  schools  which  came 
into  being  later.  The  two  were  alike  in  so  far  as  they 
both  trained  youths  for  a  definite  career ;  but  while 
the  grammar  schools  trained  boys   who  were   to   be 

^  '  For  close  on  iioo  years,  from  598-1670,  all  educational 
institutions  were  under  exclusively  ecclesiastical  control.  The  law 
of  education  was  a  branch  of  the  Canon  law.  The  Church  courts 
had  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  schools  and  universities  and  colleges 
and  until  1580  all  schoolmasters  and  scholars  were  clerks,  or  clerics, 
or  clergy,  and  in  orders,  though  not  necessarily  holy  orders,'  A.  F. 
Leach,  Educational  Charters,  Introd.  p.  xii. 

I — 2 


The  Development  of 


clergymen  and  who  were  therefore  taught  Latin,  the 
monastery  schools  trained  novices  or  oblates  who  were 

to  be  monks  and  who  were  therefore  taught  singing, 
writing,  illuminating  ;  the  prayers  of  the  Church  ;  the 
rules  of  their  order.  The  monastery  schools  rarely  com- 
peted with  the  Cathedral  grammar  schools  in  the  pro- 
vision of  a  classical  education. 

The  boys  who  attended  the  grammar  schools  were 
the  younger  (poor)  sons  of  the  squires  and  the  sons  of 
yeomen  farmers.  The  sons  of  the  nobles  and  their 
pages  (the  eldest  sons  of  the  squires)  had  tutors  at 
home.  After  the  rise  of  the  wealthy  middle  class,  it 
was  their  boys  who  filled  the  town  grammar  schools 
such  as  St  Paul's  and  it  then  became  customary  for 
the  gentry  to  send  their  sons  to  boarding  grammar 
schools  such  as  Eton,  Westminster  and  Shrewsbury. 
On  entering  a  grammar  school  a  boy  was  expected  to 
have  received  a  fair  grounding  in  accidence  (or  a  know- 
ledge of  the  concords  at  least)  and  to  possess  ability 
to  speak  and  write  correctly  in  English — these  founda- 
tions were  laid  in  the  song  or  writing  schools  or  at  home. 
The  boy  was  then  guided  through  the  remainder  of 
the  accidence  and  afterwards  proceeded  to  the  reading 
of  a  few  Latin  authors  ;  to  the  formation  of  a  good 
style  in  prose  and  verse  and  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
ease  and  elegance  of  a  Cicero  in  disputations.  The 
scarcity  and,  so  far  as  the  scholars  were  concerned, 
the  total  absence  of  books  made  the  class  work  very 
laborious.  The  method  (and  the  uniformity  which  is 
seen  in  control  and  curriculum  is  found  in  the  method 

Iso)  was  as  follows.  First,  the  text  was  dictated  to 
the  boys,  then  punctuated  and  read   through,    then 


Realism  in  England 


construed  and  finally  translated  so  that  considerable 
time  must  have  been  spent  in  reading  one  book.  Occa- 
sionally an  enthusiastic  teacher  commented  on  the 
subject  matter  ;  but  for  the  majority  it  was  enough  to 
get  through  the  reading  and  translation  only.  In  such 
comments  and  explanations  as  were  given  was  con- 
tained all  the  instruction  in  '  natural  history,'  history 
or  geography  which  the  boys  received.  Once  a  week 
a  repetition  of  the  week's  work  was  required.  Verse 
writing  was  an  important  part  of  the  work  in  the  upper 
classes  and  disputes  were  held  sometimes  as  often  as 
three  times  a  week,  while  public  disputations  in  the 
presence  of  the  clergy  were  always  held  on  feast  days. 
The  Eton  time-table  of  1530  shows  exactly  what  was 
done  in  practically  all  the  grammar  schools  during  the 
15th  and  i6th  centuries. 

But  it  is  with  education  in  the  17th  century  par- 
ticularly that  this  book  attempts  to  deal.  The  gram- 
mar school  of  the  17th  century  was  in  almost  every 
detail  identical  with  that  of  the  preceding  centuries. 
Compare  with  the  Eton  time-table  of  1530  the  one 
at  St  Paul's  almost  150  years  later.  From  1672-1697 
the  head  of  St  Paul's  was  Thos.  Gale  and  among  his 
MSS.  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  is 
one  entitled  '  The  Constant  Method  of  Teaching  in 
St  Paul's,  London.'  This  is  really  the  time-table 
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Development  of  Realism  in  England    9 

Lists  of  books  1  and  time-tables  of  other  schools 
might  be  given  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  century  after 
century  both  as  regards  curriculum  and  method  the 
grammar  schools  remained  substantially  unaltered. 
That  is  to  say,  they  continued  to  confine  their  attention 
to  the  trivium — grammar,  rhetoric  and  logic ;  Latin,  a 
little  Greek  and,  in  some  cases,  a  little  Hebrew — these 
were  the  only  subjects  ;  verse- writing,  themes  and  dis- 
putations the  only  exercises.  After  passing  through 
seven  or  eight  iorms  engaged  in  work  of  this  kind  the 
grammar  school  boy  was  ready  at  fifteen,  sixteen  or 
seventeen  years  of  age  to  go  to  the  University. 

Beginning  as  a  group  or  corporation  of  students 
who  gathered  round  some  notable  scholar,  a  university 
came  to  mean  a  recognised  association  of  students  or 
of  masters  under  the  protection  and  later  under  the 
control,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  some  civil  authority. 

From  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  onward  the 
universities  seem  to  have  made  a  stronger  appeal  to 
men's  imagination  and  sympathy  than  the  monasteries 
and  the  endowment  of  colleges  went  on  apace.  Church- 
statesmen,  sovereigns,  private  individuals  bequeathed 
large  sums  for  this  purpose,  and  the  colleges  thus 
founded  were  under  the  control  of  the  Founder's 
statutes  and  later  under  a  certain  measure  of  state 
control  also,  and  after  the  Reformation,  when  the  con- 
nection between  State  and  Church  became  so  close,  the 
Church  control  which  had  always  been  acknowledged 
became    very   much    increased    so    that  the  Church 


^  Brinsley's  Ludus  Literarius  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
grammar  school  in  the  1 7th  century. 


lo  The  Development  of 

dominated  both  the  grammar  schools  and  the  universi- 
ties. 

The  students  who  went  up  to  the  universities  from 
the  grammar  schools  were,  as  a  rule,  the  younger  sons 
whose  small  patrimony  made  earning  a  living  essential 
and  who  therefore  required  professional  training.  As 
has  been  seen  the  grammar  schools  were  supposed  to 
teach  the  trivium,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  gave 
instruction  generally  only  in  grammar,  rarely  in 
rhetoric  and  never  in  logic.  Indeed,  often  a  Founder 
of  a  College  was  compelled  to  provide  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  grammar  school  course  before  a  student 
could  attend  with  advantage  the  university  lectures. 
Walter  de  Merton  arranged  for  a  master  of  grammar 
in  Merton  College  to  teach  poor  boys  and  to  help  the 
undergraduates  who  '  were  to  go  to  him  in  any  difficulty 
without  any  false  shame  i.' 

Having  perfected  himself  in  Latin,  the  young  under- 
graduate proceeded  to  the  study  of  logic  and  rhetoric 
so  as  to  become  a  disputant  in  the  schools — a  much 
more  formidable  task  than  reading  a  theme  in  a  gram- 
mar school.  After  three  years'  training  he  was  ready 
for  his  '  Determination  '  a  public  disputation  at  the 
end  of  which  he  received  his  B.A.  degree.  Then,  a 
trained  disputant,  he  was  ready  to  enter  upon  his  four 
years'  course  in  the  quadrivium  (arithmetic,  geometry 
(including  geography),  music  and  astronomy),  prior  to 

1  Rait,  Lije  in  the  Medieval  University,  p.  34,  and  see  also  p.  58. 
'  Wm.  of  Wykeham  in  providing  for  the  needs  of  his  scholars 
availed  himself  of  the  experience  of  the  past  and  created  a  new  model 
for  the  future.  The  Fellows  of  New  College  were  to  be  efficiently 
equipped  at  Winchester  (grammar  school)  for  the  studies  of  the 
University.' 


Realism  in  England  1 1 

his  inception  as  a  Master  of  Arts  when  he  received  a 
licence  and,  in  some  periods,  a  command  to  teach. 
After  the  completion  of  this  general  course  he  was  free 
to  take  up  specialised  study  in  theology,  law,  or  medi- 
cine. 

This  suggests  a  really  liberal  education  ;  but  two 
facts  must  be  remembered,  first  that  the  work  of  a 
lecturer  was  merely  to  read  to  more  or  less  attentive 
students  the  accepted  treatises  on  the  various  subjects 
— interpretations  and  comments  might  be  added  if 
the  lecturer  was  desirous  of  making  a  reputation ;  and 
second  that  almost  the  whole  strength  of  the  students 
went  to  the  endless  disputes  about  the  veriest  trifles. 
This  is  of  course  tantamount  to  saying  that  the  uni- 
versities aimed  first,  at  the  training  of  a  disputant  who 
should  possess,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing the  subtlest  refinements  upon  the  arguments  of 
his  predecessors  or  rivals  and  secondly,  at  training- 
clergymen,  lawyers  and  doctors.  Many  students  how- 
ever did  not  pass  to  the  second  stage,  and  the  subjects 
of  the  quadrivium  were  chiefly  useful  in  furnishing 
illustrations  for  the  disputations^.  That  these  subjects 
had  any  bearing  upon  the  realities  of  life  and  especially 
upon  the  individual  life  of  the  student  was  not  for  a 
moment  suspected.  With  such  aims  there  was  almost 
as  little  change  in  curriculum  and  method  in  the  uni- 
versities as  there  was  in  the  grammar  schools. 

At  first  this  adherence  to  the  same  curriculum  and 

^  '  The  Quadrivium  was  of  comparatively  little  importance  ; 
Geometry  and  Music  received  small  attention ;  arithmetic  and 
astronomy  were  at  first  chiefly  useful  for  finding  the  date  of  Easter.' 
Rait,  Li/(?  in  the  medieval  University,  p.  137, 


12  The  Development  of 

to  the  same  method  for  so  many  centuries  seems  inex- 
pHcable,  especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  it  per- 
sisted in  spite  of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Renaissance. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there  was  more  change 
owing  to  the  Renaissance  than  is  at  first  apparent. 
The  interests  awakened  by  the  Renaissance  were  chiefly 
two  ;  first  the  interest  in  classical  literature  and  second 
that  in  '  nature  ' — in  man's  physical  environment.  A 
third  interest  in  man  himself  was  present  and  influenced 
the  other  two  but  was  not  '  worked  out '  until 
much  later  and  does  not  specially  concern  us  here.  It 
was  the  interest  in  classical  literature  that  first  capti- 
vated men's  imagination  and  enthusiasm.  Every 
historian  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy  describes  the 
eagerness  with  which  search  was  made  for  original 
Mss.  and  the  zeal  with  which  those  which  were  dis- 
covered were  read,  copied  and  passed  from  university 
to  university  to  awaken  in  each  increased  devotion 
to  the  study  of  the  ancient  world.  A  later  stage  was 
reached  when,  instead  of  reading  these  texts  to  discover 
the  knowledge  possessed  by  the  Ancients  and  their 
opinions  and  ideals,  students  pored  over  them  to  note 
differences  in  style  and  construction.  Later,  enthu- 
siasts began  to  produce  textual  notes  and  to  set  up 
as  their  ideal  as  close  and  perfect  an  imitation  of 
classical  authors,  and  especially  of  Cicero,  as  possible. 
From  that  time  a  narrowing  to  formalism  was  inevit- 
able. The  very  eagerness  of  the  Humanists  was  the 
seed-plot  of  Ciceronianism.  The  resultant  effect  in  the 
schools  was  two-fold.  First  it  was  classical  and  not 
ecclesiastical  Latin  that  was  studied,  and  second,  gram- 
mar was  taken  more  and  more  as  a  subject  in  itself 


Realism  in  England  13 

existing  apart  from  any  text.  Evidence  of  this  is  seen 
in  the  large  number  of  new  grammars  which  were 
written  and  in  the  regulations  which  appeared  in  the 
Charters  of  new  schools  as  to  the  grammar  to  be  used^. 
It  will  readily  be  understood  that  to  study  the  contents 
of  the  classical  texts  ;  to  attempt  to  give  instruction 
in  the  subjects  of  which  they  treated,  such  as  history, 
geography  and  astronomy,  demanded  a  willingness  to 
change  and  an  enthusiasm  which  were  the  possession 
of  the  few ;  while  to  give  an  increased  amount  of  gram- 
mar, a  more  thorough  memory  training  and  drilling  in 
theme-writing,  was  but  to  require  a  steadier  and  a  more 
settled  continuance  in  the  old,  narrow  ways. 

The  second  great  interest  of  the  Renaissance  period 
was  that  in  the  world  of  nature.  This  was  awakened 
owing  very  largely  to  a  gradually  conceived  idea  of  the 
Greek  joy  in  life  and  in  nature  and  also  owing  to  the 
many  scientific  discoveries  of  the  period.  For  a  time, 
this  second  interest  was  overshadowed  by  the  rapid 
development  of  the  enthusiasm  for  classics  ;  but  little 
by  little  it  grew  and  slowly  influenced  the  old  quad- 
rivium,  the  subjects  of  which  became  more  and  more 
differentiated.  It  would  seem  then  that  the  univer- 
sities ought  to  have  been  alfected  ;  but  the  earliest 
influence  here  was,  as  in  the  grammar  schools,  exerted 
by  the  zeal  for  the  classics.  '  New  Learning  '  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  meant  classical  Latin  and  Greek.     In 

^  See  Eton  time-table  (supra  p.  6)  which  mentions,  as  well  as 
the  famous  grammar  of  Lily,  the  Stanbridge  grammar.  Stanbridge 
was  a  schoolmaster  at  Banbury  about  1500.  He  made  his  school  so 
celebrated  by  his  teaching  that  the  statutes  of  new  schools  often 
required  the  master  to  teach  '  grammar  after  the  manner  of  Banbury 
school.' 


14  The  Development  of 

the  universities,  too,  the  sanctity  of  tradition  proved 
too  powerful  even  for  such  men  as  Erasmus,  Linacre 
and  others.  That  new  subjects  were  introduced  is  un- 
doubtedly true,  but  their  adoption  was  entirely  for- 
tuitous and  the  teaching  of  the  subject  invariably 
ceased  with  the  removal  of  the  teacher.  Moreover, 
after  the  Reformation,  Church  control  was  practically 
synonymous  with  State  control  and  the  Tudors,  finding 
that  too  much  of  the  '  New  Learning  '  led  to  the  spread 
of  Puritanism  in  the  universities  and  to  a  dangerous 
love  of  theological  arguments,  confined  the  work  there 
to  rigidly  defined  theological  courses.  As  Mr  MuUinger 
says  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth — '  It  had  been  decided 
that  Cambridge  should  be  mainly  a  school  of  divinity 
and  that  the  doctrine  taught  in  her  schools  should  be 
defined  and  prescribed  beforehand . . .  The  main  interest 
having  centred  in  the  discussion  of  theological  questions 
whatever  was  taught  of  liberal  learning  sank  to  an  almost 
lifeless  tradition^.' 

Tradition  therefore,  supported  by  authority  in  the 
hands  of  the  Church,  decided  that  both  in  grammar 
schools  and  universities  there  should  be  faithful  ad- 
herence to  the  old  ways — to  the  provision  of  a  classical 
training  for  the  servants  of  the  Church.  But  however 
strong  they  might  be,  tradition  and  authority  could  not 
prevent  the  working  out  of  the  great  conceptions  that 
had  their  birth  at  the  Renaissance.  However  narrow 
the  schools  and  universities  might  become,  there  were 
still  men  who  clung  to  the  hope  that  Humanism  would 
ultimately  triumph.  As  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
i6th  century  scorn  was  poured  upon  the  Ciceronian 

^  History  of  Cambridge  University,  p.  134. 


Realism  in  England  15 

teaching  in  the  writings  of  Erasmus  and  Rabelais,  while 
Montaigne's  Essay  on  Pedantry  was  published  in  1580. 
In  our  own  country  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  in  his  '  Boke 
named  the  Governour '  which  was  published  in  1531, 
wrote  very  strongly  against  the  narrow  humanists. 
'  And  who  that  hath  nothinge  but  language  only,' 
he  writes,  '  may  be  no  more  praised  than  a  popinjay, 
a  pye  or  a  stare  whan  they  speke  featly . . .  wherefore 
they  be  moche  abused  that  suppose  eloquence  to  be 
only  in  wordes  or  coulours  of  Rhetorike . . .  undoubtedly 
very  eloquence  is  in  every  tonge  where  any  matter  or 
acte  done  or  to  be  done  is  expressed  in  wordes  clene, 
propise,  ornate  and  comely^.'  Here,  Elyot,  notable 
already  for  having  had  the  courage  to  write  in  English  2, 
not  only  writes  against  the  excessive  drilling  in  lan- 
guage, i.e.  in  grammar  and  in  training  in  eloquence,  but 
says  it  is  possible  to  express  one's  self  in  one's  own 
language  and  that  everyone  does  not  need  to  spend 
long  years  in  the  study  of  Latin  only.  The  course 
which  he  proceeds  to  sketch  for  the  gentleman  is  very 
broad  and  includes  all  the  '  modern  '  subjects  advo- 
cated by  the  early  Humanists — geography,  history, 
astronomy,  and  the  rest — and  not  only  has  physical 
education  an  important  place  but  painting,  carving 
and  such  subjects  are  to  be  included.  Elyot's  sugges- 
tions are  typical  of  those  made  not  only  in  England  but 
m  Italy  and  France  too  during  the  i6th  century  when 
there  was  an  effort  to  combine  the  broad  humanistic 
scholarly  training  with  the  mediaeval  knightly  training 

'  The  Governour.     Everyman  Edition,  pp.  54  and  55. 
*  Compare  J.  L.  Vives  who  certainly  advocated  the  use  of  the 
vernacular  and  yet  wrote  in  Latin — De  Tradendis  Disciplinis. 


1 6  The  Development  of 

and  to  produce  the  scholar-gentleman.  That  this  was 
the  ideal  to  be  aimed  at  during  the  Tudor  period  is 
abundantly  clear  from  a  consideration  of  the  Hfe  at 
Elizabeth's  court ;  Sidney,  Raleigh,  Leicester  and 
many  others  were  perfect  embodiments  of  this  con- 
ception^. 

This  broader  education  with  its  recognition  of 
physical  needs  and  its  practical  bearing  upon  life  ap- 
pealed strongly  to  the  new  Tudor  nobility  who  loved 
a  much  fuller  life  than  was  possible  in  the  excessively 
ecclesiastical  atmosphere  of  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge. 

It  was  just  the  nobles  moreover  who,  free  from  the 
authority  of  Church  or  State  and  untrammelled  by 
tradition,  could  obtain,  either  at  home  under  their 
tutors  or  abroad  in  the  courtly  Academies,  which  arose 
in  France 2,  this  new  education.  In  England  too  at- 
tempts were  made  to  supply  the  new  need.  At  the 
Inns  of  Court  a  practical  and  physical  education  was 
obtainable  and  in  1571  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  drew  up 
a  scheme  for  an  academy  similar  to  those  in  France. 
The  work  in  this  Academy  was  to  be  provided  for  as 
follows  :  '  For  Latin,  Greek,  one  schoolmaster  and  four 
ushers  ;  a  teacher  of  Hebrew  ;  also  one  for  logic  and 
rhetoric  ;  one  teacher  for  moral  philosophy  and  one 
in  natural  philosophy  and  a  reader  in  physic.  The 
last-named  two  were  required  to  conduct  experiments 
and  were  afforded  a  "  physic-garden  "  for  the  purpose. 

^  Castiglione's  7/ Coy^eg'/awo,  translated  into  English  by  Sir  Thomas 
Hoby  in  1561,  influenced  the  development  in  this  direction  in  England, 
and  Peacham's  Compleat  Gentleman  of  1622  is  on  the  same  lines. 

2  Mentioned  by  many  English  writers — Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury 
and  John  Evelyn  among  others. 


Realism  m  England  17 

The  rest  of  the  staff  included  a  reader  of  civil  law  and 
one  for  divinity  ;  a  lawyer  for  grounds  of  the  Common 
Law. .  .one  teacher  of  French  (with  an  usher)  ;  one  of 
Italian  (with  an  usher)  ;  one  of  Spanish ;  one  of  the 
High  Dutch,  i.e.  German  ;  one  master  of  defence  ;  of 
dancing  and  vaulting  ;  of  music  (with  an  usher)  ;  one 
herald  of  arms,  and  a  teacher  of  riding  the  Great  Horse 
...These  subjects  were  to  be  taught  in  English  and 
text-books  in  English  were  to  be  encouraged  1.' 

This  Academy  and  a  few  others  on  the  same  plan 
aimed  at  giving  a  '  modem  '  education  to  the  nobility — 
they,  unfettered  by  Church  and  State  control,  were 
at  hberty  to  arrange  their  education  as  they  wished. 
Travel  at  that  time  played  an  important  part  in  the 
education  of  a  gentleman,  and  with  the  rise  of  ver- 
nacular literatures  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that 
provision  was  made  for  English  to  be  used  and  for 
modern  languages  to  receive  attention.  Probably  the 
most  notable  feature  of  the  curriculum  is  the  natural 
philosophy  and  physic  and  the  injunction  that  a  physic 
garden  was  to  be  provided.  That  the  '  modern  '  educa- 
tion of  those  days  included  instruction  in  the  Sciences 
was  chiefly  due  to  the  influence  of  Peter  Ramus  (15 15- 
1572)  whose  '  most  fundamental  and  far-reaching  con- 
tribution '  to  the  development  of  educational  theory 
'  was  his  aid  to  the  emancipation  of  society  from  the 
bondage  to  mediaeval  authority  and  to  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  truth  and  free  investigation  2.' 

Ramus  began  his  attack  upon  the  philosophical  and 

*  Quoted  from  The  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Subjects 
in  England,  by  Foster  Watson.     Introd.  p.  xxxii. 
"  Graves,  Peter  Ramus,  p.  204. 

P.  D.  A.  2 


1 8  The  Development  of 

educational  method  of  his  day  by  maintaining  as  the 
thesis  for  his  M.A.  degree  the  astonishing  proposition 
'  All  that  Aristotle  has  said  is  false.'  This  was  in  1536. 
It  is  difficult  for  us  to  grasp  the  full  significance  of  this 
event.  When  it  is  remembered  that  all  the  labours  of 
the  schoolmen  were  based  upon  an  unquestioning  ac- 
ceptance of  the  method  laid  down  by  Aristotle  ;  that 
should  Aristotle  be  proved  wanting  all  the  toil  of  the 
Middle  Ages  would  be  of  no  avail ;  in  other  words,  that 
if  Ramus  were  right  then  all  the  disputations  of  every 
professor  and  every  student  in  every  university  in 
Europe  would  be  valueless — when  this  is  remembered 
it  will  be  seen  what  tremendous  import  his  argument 
had.  It  was  in  vain  that  men  said  that,  but  for  Aris- 
totle, Ramus  would  not  have  been  able  even  to  dispute  ; 
the  fact  remained,  he  had  dared  to  question  and  even 
to  denounce,  not  merely  an  authority  but  the  only 
authority.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  life  spent  in 
devotion  to  educational  reform.  He  first  set  himself 
to  show  the  true  value  of  logic  and  to  expound  the 
right  method  of  knowledge.  He  was,  of  course, 
ardently  opposed  to  Ciceronianism,  and  as  a  result  of 
his  work  the  curriculum  gradually  underwent  an  im- 
provement. He  very  much  simplified  the  subjects  of 
the  trivium  and  aimed  at  making  the  teaching  of 
language  easier.  But  it  was  the  subjects  of  the  quad- 
rivium  that  were  especially  influenced  ;  as  Graves  says 
'  He  improved  all  literary  and  expression  studies  and 
helped  to  give  mathematics  and  science  a  start  1.'  At 
first  there  was  the  inevitable  storm  of  opposition  to 
the  Innovator — a  person  to  be  avoided  in  those  days  ; 

^  Peter  Ramus,  p.  218. 


Realism  in  England  19 

but  gradually  many  scholars  in  the  great  universities 
realised  that  Aristotelian  philosophy — or  at  least,  the 
mediaeval  conception  of  it  was  inadequate — and  that 
adherence  to  mediaeval  methods  was  responsible  for 
the  slow  growth  of  knowledge.  The  result  was  that 
before  long  a  new  idea  took  shape — that  if  only  a  right 
method  could  be  adopted  not  only  would  men's  know- 
ledge increase  but  with  the  spread  of  knowledge  would 
vanish  the  social  evils  of  the  day.  The  first  desideratum 
was  the  increase  of  knowledge.  Gradually,  in  practi- 
cally every  country  in  Western  Europe  were  found 
men  who  accepted  the  new  philosophy — Ramism,  as 
it  was  called,  and  having  substituted  the  '  method  of 
experience  '  for  reliance  upon  authority,  set  themselves 
to  prosecute  vigorous  inquiries  into  every  branch  of 
knowledge.  The  Geometry  of  Euclid ^  and  Mathe- 
matics generally  were  eagerly  studied  ;  astronomy  was 
developed  ;  natural  philosophy  and  physics  gradually 
divided  up  into  medicine,  anatomy,  botany,  and 
physics. 

Closely  connected  with  the  desire  to  add  to  the  sum 
of  human  knowledge  was  the  wish  to  apply  that  know- 
ledge to  the  augmentation  of  the  sum  of  human  hap- 
piness. It  was  in  North  Europe  especially  that 
Humanism  developed  an  interest  in  social  questions 
and  in  this,  of  course,  it  was  allied  with  the  Reforma- 
tion. Ramus,  who  became  a  Protestant,  was  as  eager 
as  anyone  to  ameliorate  social  conditions,  and  his  edu- 
cational reforms  were  inspired  very  largely  with  the 
desire  to  bring  education  into  line  with  the  social  needs 
of  the  day  and  to  place  it  within  the  reach  of  every  one. 

1  Ramus'  Geometry,  founded  on  Euclid  was  published  1596- 

2 — 2 


20  The  Development  of 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  i6th  century,  then,  two 
streams  of  thought  may  be  traced ;  one  concerned 
with  the  development  of  science — with  the  study  of 
natural  phenomena ;  the  other  concerned  with  the 
attempt  to  modify  education  in  accordance  with  eco- 
nomic changes  and  to  give  some  education  to  every 
individual.  In  the  17th  centiuy  both  these  tendencies 
were  recognised  by  Comenius  who  undertook  the  task 
of  noting  the  trend  of  public  opinion  and  of  formu- 
lating educational  theories  in  accordance  therewith. 
But  Comenius  must  be  dealt  with  later.  In  the  mean- 
time the  attitude  of  Englishmen  to  these  two  tendencies 
must  be  noted. 

England  took  no  small  share  in  the  development  of 
Science  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  nobles  were  eager  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  new  subjects  which  formed  part  of 
the  curriculum  of  the  Courtly  Academies.  It  is  curious 
to  note  that  in  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert's  scheme  no 
branch  of  mathematics  is  included,  though,  owing  to 
the  geometry  by  Ramus  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Thomas  Hood  in  1590,  the  subject  became 
more  widely  studied,  especially  by  Cambridge  scholars. 
The  acceptance  of  Ramism  by  these  scholars  at  Cam- 
bridge prepared  the  way  for  the  work  of  later  mathe- 
maticians and  especially  for  that  of  Newton.  It  is 
probable  that  Bacon,  who  later  followed  Ramus  in  his 
examination  of  Aristotelian  philosophy,  came  under 
the  influence  of  Ramism  at  Cambridge.  At  Oxford, 
too,  some  interest  was  being  taken  in  mathematics  ; 
the  founder  of  the  Savilian  professorship,  Sir  Henry 
Savile,  lectured  in  his  subject  about  1570.  But  as 
was  the  case  when  Erasmus  taught  Greek  at  Cambridge 


Realism  in  England  21 

at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  the  teaching  was 
casual  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  formed  a  definite 
part  of  the  University  course  or  to  have  in  any  but 
the  shghtest  way  influenced  the  general  attitude  of  the 
University  to  the  new  subject. 

When  inquiry  is  made  as  to  the  progress  of  the 
sciences  it  is  found  that  they  developed  independently 
of  the  support  of  the  University  as  such.  It  is  true 
that  in  this  branch  also  advanced  men  strove  to  awaken 
the  authorities  to  the  trend  of  the  times  ;  but  without 
much  result.  For  example,  a  physic  garden  was  opened 
in  Oxford  in  1632  and  was  designed  to  be  of  special 
service  in  the  medical  course,  while  Antony  Wood 
records  that  on  April  23,  1663,  he  '  began  a  course  of 
chimistry  under  the  noted  chimist  Peter  Sthael  of 
Strasburgh.'  These  chemistry  lectures  to  a  '  club 
which  consisted  of  ten  at  least '  were  probably  the  first 
that  had  been  given  in  Oxford  and  were  of  course 
quite  unconnected  with  the  University.  Sthael,  a 
Lutheran  was  taken  to  Oxford  by  Robert  Boyle  in 
1659  3.nd  '  began  to  take  to  him  scholars  in  the  house 
of  John  Cross  next  on  the  west  side  to  University 
College  where  he  began  but  with  three  scholars^.' 
Wood  gives  the  names  of  several  of  those  who  attended 
the  lectures,  among  them  were  Dr  J.  Wallis,  Mr  Chris- 
topher Wren  and  Dr  Ralph  Bathurst ;  he  also  records 
that  the  '  Chimical  Club  '  which  he  joined  concluded 
on  May  30th,  1663,  '  And  A.W.  paid  Mr  Sthael  30  shill- 
ings, having  in  the  beginning  of  the  class  given  30  shill- 
ings beforehand,'  and  then  he  makes  this  comment 
'A.W.  got  some  knowledge  and  experience  but  his  mind 

^  L»/e  and  Times  of  Antony  Wood  (Oxf.  Hist.  Soc),  i.  p.  472. 


22  The  Development  of 

still  hung  after  antiquities  and  music  ^.'  In  the  next 
year  Sthael  went  to  London  to  become  the  '  operator 
of  the  Royal  Society  '  and  continued  in  that  position 
for  the  next  seven  or  eight  years.  It  was  the  group 
of  men  who  meeting  in  London  2,  in  the  years  following 
1645,  and  spoken  of  often  as  the  '  invisible  College  ' 
and  the  Oxford  group  of  '  48-50  ' — Wilkins  of  Wadham, 
Bathurst,  Wren,  WaUis  and  for  some  time  Boyle  and 
Petty  and  others — who  about  1660  organised  their 
meetings  and  formed  the  Royal  Society.  From  that 
time  it  was  the  Royal  Society  and  not  the  universities 
which  became  the  centre  of  the  scientific  movement 
and  to  which  all  the  scientific  discoveries  were  reported. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten,  of  course,  that  all  scientific 
studies  were  regarded  as  more  or  less  closely  connected 
with  the  Black  Art,  and  the  theologians  still  harboured 
something  of  the  spirit  which  in  earher  days  had  de- 
clared Galileo  a  heretic.  In  the  17th  century  many 
considered  not  only  scientists  but  mathematicians  also 
as  Atheists  and  the  professors  of  them  '  limbs  of  the 
devil  ^,'  and  therefore  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  universities,  the  strongholds  of  ecclesiastical  feeling, 
should  regard  with  suspicion  the  new  learning  and  that 
the  members  of  the  Royal  Society  had  for  years  to 
endure  ridicule  and  censure.     The  work  of  the  Royal 

^  hije  and  Times  of  Antony  Wood,  p.  475. 

^  Sometimes  at  Gresham  College,  founded  under  the  wiU  of 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham  (1519-1579).  He  endowed  professorships  in 
divinity,  astronomy,  music,  geometry,  law,  medicine  and  rhetoric  ; 
he  encouraged  the  use  of  practical  methods  and  required  the  teaching 
to  be  in  Enghsh  and  not  in  Latin.  The  work  of  Gresham  College  was 
therefore  more  utiUtarian  and  realistic  than  that  in  the  universities. 

^  Antony  Wood's  Athenae  Oxon.  11.  p.  336. 


Realism  in  England  23 

Society  may  be  described  as  serious  and  scientific  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word  ;  in  other  quarters  there 
were  attempts  made  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  in 
the  study  of  science,  and  books  containing  descriptions 
of  animals  and  of  collections  of  rarities  of  all  kinds 
were  published.  This  is  of  course  merely  the  first 
stage  in  the  development  of  any  science  ;  but  these 
books,  under  the  general  influence  of  the  time,  had  often 
a  strong  scriptural  and  ethical  tone.  This  type  of  book 
is  represented  by  such  a  work  as  that  of  Samuel  Purchas, 
'  A  theatre  of  flying  insects  where  especially  the  nature, 
worth  and  work,  wonder  and  manner  of  the  right  order- 
ing of  the  bee  is  discovered  and  described  with  theo- 
logical, historicall  and  morall  observations^.'  As  Mr 
Foster  Watson  shows  in  his  Beginnings  of  the  Teach- 
ing of  Modern  Subjects  in  England  books  of  this  kind 
probably  influenced  some  schoolmasters  and  occasion- 
ally, therefore,  some  attempt  would  be  made  to  improve 
the  curriculum.  Desires  of  this  nature  are  seen  not 
only  in  the  work  of  an  advanced  schoolmaster  here 
and  there  like  Hezekiah  Woodward,  who  advocated 
nature  study  for  schools,  or  John  Dury,  but  in  the 
numerous  pamphlets  and  addresses  which  appeared  in 
the  first  half  of  the  17th  century — an  age  of  pamphlets 
and  of  all  manner  of  schemes  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  conditions  of  the  people. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  with  the  rise  of  Puritanism 
the  i6th  century  saw  a  strengthening  and  a  crystal- 
lising into  definite  shape  of  the  Reformation  ideal  of 

*  Foster  Watson,  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Subjects  in 
England,  note  p.  189. 


24  The  Development  of 

the  recognition  of  the  worth  of  the  individual.  This 
resulted  in  the  growth  among  the  people  of  England 
not  only  of  a  desire  to  exercise  their  reason  with  regard 
to  religious  questions  or  even  to  obtain  a  measure  of 
control  over  the  government,  but  also  of  a  firm  con- 
viction of  the  need  for  universal  education.  To  think 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Commons  of  England  in  the  17th 
century  as  being  interested  in  religious  and  constitu- 
tional questions  without  recognising  that  they  grasped 
the  importance  of  sound  universal  education  is  not  to 
do  justice  to  the  breadth  and  enlightenment  of  their 
views.  Moreover,  just  as  they  strove  to  obtain  a  re- 
formed church  and  a  reformed  method  of  government, 
so  they  laboured  to  bring  about  a  reformed  education. 
The  worthless,  formal  grammar  grind  of  the  schools 
was  criticised  almost  as  strenuously  as  the  formalism 
of  the  Church,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  as 
there  were  two  parties  (broadly  speaking)  in  the  Church, 
so  there  were  two  parties  in  the  schools,  one  satisfied 
in  continuing  to  give  the  old  classical  training,  the 
other  wishing  to  introduce  new  methods  and  new  sub- 
jects. And  the  members  of  the  *  reforming  '  party  in 
the  schools  were  generally  to  be  found  among  the  '  re- 
forming '  party  in  the  Church  ;  for  the  Puritans,  driven 
by  persecution  to  Holland  and  Switzerland,  had  there 
come  into  contact  with  the  strongest  forces  making  for 
progress,  and  in  the  Protestant  centres  of  learning 
under  the  stimulating  guidance  of  such  men  as  Cordier, 
Berauld  and  Calvin  had  been  much  influenced  by 
the  new  philosophy.  Eager  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
new  knowledge  which  was  rapidly  opening  out,  the 
Puritans  were  enthusiastic  also  in  their  determination 


Realism  in  England  25 

to  apply  the  great  principle  enunciated  by  Bacon, 
that  since  observation  (use  of  the  senses)  is  the 
true  way  to  learning  (and  not  scholastic  philosophy) 
everyone  can,  with  the  aid  of  the  right  method,  be 
taught  everything.  Probably  the  most  enthusiastic 
worker  along  these  lines  among  the  Puritans^  was 
Samuel  Hartlib,  a  Polish  merchant,  who  seems  never 
to  have  done  any  business,  and  who,  a  refugee,  came 
to  England  about  1628  and  remained  here  until  after 
the  Restoration,  when  he  seems  to  have  gone  to  Hol- 
land. During  the  whole  time  he  was  engaged  in  trying 
to  set  on  foot  various  philanthropic  schemes  so  that 
Milton,  one  of  his  many  friends,  wrote  of  him  as  '  a 
person  sent  hither  by  some  good  Providence  from  a  far 
country  to  be  the  occasion  and  incitement  of  great 
good  to  this  island.'  Hartlib  appears  to  have  been  a 
gentle  lovable  man  with  as  many  friends  as  enthu- 
siasms. Writing  to  Dr  Worthington,  Master  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  he  says  '  I  could  fill  whole  sheets 
in  what  love  and  reputation  I  have  lived  these  thirty 
years  in  England  being  famiharly  acquainted  with  the 
best  of  Archbishops,  Bishops,  Earls,  Viscounts,  Barons, 
Knights,  Esquires,  Gentlemen,  Ministers,  Professors  of 
both  Universities,  merchants  and  all  sorts  of  learned 
or  in  any  kind  useful  men  etc.^'  The  last  phrase  is 
significant.  Hartlib  seems  to  have  spent  his  time 
making  the  acquaintance  of  and  corresponding  with 
learned  men  and  particularly  with  men  interested  in 

^  The  term  is  used  loosely  to  cover  Independents,  Presbyterians, 
Lutherans,  etc. — all  extreme  '  low  '  churchmen. 

*  Quoted  in  Biographical  Memoir  of  S.  Hartlib  by  G.  H.  Dircks, 

P-  4- 


26  The  Development  of 

new  subjects,  in  inventions  and  in  philanthropic 
schemes,  as  Masson  says  '  nothing  of  a  hopeful  kind 
with  novelty  in  it  came  amiss  to  Hartlib^.'  For 
years  he  corresponded  with  Robert  Boyle  and  a 
characteristic  letter  to  him  in  1649  shows  him  ready 
to  help  another  scientific  inquirer — '  My  endeavours 
are  now  how  Mr  Petty  may  be  set  apart  and  encouraged 
for  the  advancement  of  experimental  and  mechanical 
knowledge  in  Gresham  College  in  London.'  That 
Hartlib  was  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  his  time  is  abund- 
antly evident.  He  was  filled  with  enthusiasm  about 
the  wonderful  discoveries  that  were  being  made ; 
ready  to  sjrmpathise  with  Petty  in  his  excitement  about 
a  machine  for  double  writing  he  had  invented  ;  eager 
to  tell  John  Evelyn  of  improvements  in  German  stoves. 
In  fact,  anyone  interested  in  things  of  this  kind  was 
sure  to  find  in  Hartlib  not  only  a  man  ready  to  listen 
but  a  friend  ready  to  help  by  arranging  for  the 
publication  of  a  pamphlet  which  should  introduce 
some  new  marvel  to  the  general  public.  He  seems 
indeed  to  have  been  in  himself  a  kind  of  '  Office  of 
Public  Address'  and  thus  to  have  actually  for  his  own 
circle  of  friends  put  into  execution  one  of  his  most 
cherished  schemes.  Among  his  multifarious  interests 
the  chief  were  religion  and  education  and  these  brought 
him  into  close  friendship  with  two  men  devoted  to 
both  causes — John  Dury  and  John  Amos  Comenius. 
It  was  Dury's  life  work  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
of  the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans,  and  in  fact  a  union 
of  all  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe  on  some  broad 
basis  which  could  be  accepted  by  all.     It  was  Hartlib's 

^  Masson,  Lije  of  Milton,  Vol.  iii.  p.  215. 


Realism  in  England  27 

part  to  publish  various  letters  and  pamphlets  and  to 
introduce  them  and  Dury  to  influential  people  who 
might  be  expected  to  further  the  project.  These 
endeavours  brought  both  men  into  close  contact  with 
Comenius,  an  exiled  Moravian  bishop,  and  the  bond  of 
union  between  the  three  was  further  strengthened  by 
the  fact  that  very  dear  to  each  of  them  was  the  problem 
of  social  and  of  educational  reform.  It  was  Comenius 
who  was  destined  through  his  writings  to  have  the 
greatest  influence  on  the  development  of  education. 
Ahve  to  the  philosophic  thought  of  his  day  he  became 
the  great  exponent  of  Realism  in  educational  theory. 
During  the  silence  enforced  upon  him,  as  a  minister, 
by  persecution,  he  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  books  on  education  and  to  the 
formulation  of  a  new  theory  which  should  be  based 
upon  a  recognition  of  the  need  for  a  useful  and  practical 
as  well  as  for  a  universal  education.  He  himself,  as 
he  tells  us,  had  suffered  in  a  grammar  school  one  of 
'  those  slaughter  houses  of  the  young  '  and  he  laboured 
therefore  first,  to  reform  the  methods  in  use  there. 
He  became  for  a  time  head  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Lissa, 
and  his  experience  as  a  teacher  led  him  to  issue  simpli- 
fied Latin  school  texts  which  soon  became  known  in 
every  country  in  Europe.  As  early  as  1633  knowledge 
of  Comenius  had  reached  England  ;  for  in  that  year 
Thomas  Home,  M.A.,  a  schoolmaster  in  London,  and 
then  Master  of  Eton,  had  published  a  Janua  Linguarum 
which  is  said  by  Antony  Wood  to  have  been  mostly 
taken  from  Comenius — the  title  is  his  at  any  rate.  But 
it  was  Hartlib  who  was  really  to  make  Comenius  known 
in  this  country — it  was  possibly  he  who  had  introduced 


28  The  Developjnent  of 

his  texts  to  the  notice  of  Home  and  others.  Whether 
this  was  so  or  not,  in  1637  we  find  HartUb  pubUshing 
Fr eludes  of  the  Endeavour  of  Comenius  from  the  Library 
of  S.H.,  Oxford.  There  is  first  a  preface  to  the  reader 
and  then  the  treatise — '  Porta  Sapientia  Reserata  etc. — 
the  Gate  of  Wisdom  opened  or  the  Seminary  of  all 
Christian  knowledge  ;  being  a  new  compendium  and 
solid  method  of  learning  more  briefly,  more  truly  and 
better  than  hitherto,  all  the  sciences  and  arts  and  what- 
ever there  is  manifest  or  occult  that  it  is  given  to  the 
genius  of  man  to  penetrate,  his  craft  to  imitate,  or  his 
tongue  to  speak.  The  author  that  Rev.  and  most  dis- 
tinguished man,  Mr  J.  A.  Comenius.'  The  story  of 
this  publication  is  told  by  Comenius  himself.  Hartlib, 
it  seems,  had  heard  of  Comenius'  plan  for  a  large  work 
dealing  with  an  educational  system  which  should  pro- 
vide not  only  for  an  improved  method  of  teaching 
languages,  but  also  for  a  method  of  teaching  '  things.' 
Comenius  was  begged  by  Hartlib  to  give  him  a  sketch 
of  this  intended  '  Janua  Rerum.'  '  Being  thus  en- 
treated '  says  Comenius,  '  by  the  most  intimate  of  my 
friends,  a  man  piously  eager  for  the  public  good,  to 
communicate  some  ideas  of  my  future  work,  I  did 
communicate  to  him  in  writing  in  a  chance  way  what 
I  had  thought  of  prefixing  sometime  or  other  to  the 
work  in  the  form  of  a  preface  and  this,  beyond  my  hope 
and  without  my  knowledge  was  printed  at  Oxford  under 
the  title  of  Conatuum  Comenianorum  Pracludia^.'  The 
pamphlet  gives  an  idea  of  the  realistic  position.  Start- 
ing with  the  conviction  that  '  nothing  is  in  the  under- 
standing  which   was   not   before   in   the   senses '   the 

^  Quoted  in  Masson's  Life  of  Milton. 


Realism  in  England  29 

realists  proposed  to  replace  the  old  memory  and 
language  training — mere  '  words  ' — by  a  training  of 
the  understanding  through  the  cultivation  of  the 
powers  of  observation.  Lessons  about  real  things 
were  to  be  given,  illustrations  were  to  be  used  and 
above  all  the  subject  was  to  be  approached  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  child's  limited  capacity  for  under- 
standing. The  realists  were  '  encyclopaedists  '  also  ; 
for,  since  the  senses  were  the  gate- way  to  knowledge, 
a  training  of  the  senses  would  bring  all  knowledge 
within  the  grasp  of  the  child,  and  therefore  there  was 
no  subject  which  at  some  stage  he  might  not  learn. 

Though  Comenius  was  no  doubt  somewhat  annoyed 
by  Hartlib's  over-zealousness,  their  friendship  was  not 
broken,  for  in  1641  Comenius  was  induced  to  come  to 
England  for  the  purpose  of  putting  into  practice  some  of 
his  educational  theories.  No  doubt  Hartlib's  publication 
had  helped  to  increase  his  already  great  reputation  in 
England,  and  Comenius  writes  as  though  he  had  been 
invited  by  Parliament,  Whether  the  invitation  was 
sent  by  Parliament  or  not  is  not  known  ;  but  it  is 
certain  that  there  were  many  teachers  and  many  in- 
fluential friends  of  Hartlib  exceedingly  anxious  to 
reform  English  education  with  the  help  of  the  acknow- 
ledged leader  of  education  in  Europe.  The  plan  was 
to  arrange  for  the  opening  of  a  realistic  College  in 
London  which  should  give  a  scientific — an  encyclopaedic, 
education  based  on  the  new  methods  enunciated  by 
Bacon  and  Comenius.  It  was  felt  that  to  attempt 
anything  of  this  kind  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  which 
were  so  embedded  in  Ciceronianism,  would  be  futile. 
Besides,  the  new  education  was  to  be  utilitarian  and 


30  The  Development  of 

was  to  appeal  not  only  to  professional  but  to  com- 
mercial and  middle  class  men  generally,  so  that  London 
was  a  better  centre  than  the  ancient  universities  would 
be.  There  was,  moreover,  more  probability  of  success 
for  the  new  education  in  a  College  on  a  fresh  foundation 
than  in  the  universities  which  could  not  be  expected  to 
welcome  studies  so  little  in  keeping  with  the  mediaeval 
atmosphere  which  still  hung  about  them.  This  visit 
is  of  very  great  importance  ;  it  shows  unmistakably  the 
great  interest  taken  in  education  on  the  eve  of  the  Civil 
War.  Unfortunately  the  outbreak  of  that  war  pre- 
vented Hartlib  and  his  friends  from  making  use  of 
Comenius  as  they  had  hoped,  but  that  does  not  mean 
that  the  visit  was  a  failure.  The  fact  remains  that  it 
was  to  England  that  the  great  educational  reformer  was 
invited ;  that  so  early  as  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th 
century  there  was  a  great  desire  to  estabhsh  here  the 
new  education  ;  that  the  opening  of  a  College  giving 
expression  to  the  ideas  of  Bacon  and  Comenius  was 
thought  to  be  so  well  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that 
sites  were  discussed.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
placed  upon  this  scheme  ;  it  goes  to  prove  that  England 
was  in  the  forefront  of  educational  reform  and  it  was 
moreover  the  beginning  of  a  realistic  movement  which, 
though  interrupted  for  a  time,  never  really  died  down. 
While  Comenius  was  in  England,  Harthb  published 
once  more  his  views  on  the  reformation  of  schools. 
During  the  months  that  Comenius  was  here  Hartlib 
must  have  been  a  happy  man.  To  have  the  great 
educationalist  of  the  day  staying  with  him  ;  to  be 
able  to  introduce  Comenius  to  sympathetic  friends  ;  to 
be  constantly  arranging  gatherings  for  the  discussion 


Realism  in  England  31 

of  their  pet  theories — how  HartUb  must  have  revelled 
in  all  this  !  And  what  an  influence  the  visit  was 
destined  to  have  !  When  Comenius  went  away  it 
is  true  no  Pansophical  College  had  been  opened  in 
London  to  give  a  realistic  education  far  in  advance 
of  that  given  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge  ;  but  there  were 
left  behind  men  more  determined  than  ever  to  leave 
no  stone  unturned  to  further  their  aims. 

Hartlib  was  as  active  as  ever  ;  in  1644  at  his  earnest 
request,  Milton,  who  had  been  teaching  his  two  nephews 
and  a  few  other  boys  since  1639,  wrote  his  views  on 
education.  The  Tractate  is  too  well  known  to  need 
much  comment.  In  it  Milton  repeats  the  criticism  of 
the  current  university  and  grammar  school  methods 
which  is  to  be  found  in  all  advanced  writers  of  the 
period,  and  is  quite  in  agreement  with  Comenius  in  his 
desire  to  give  a  realistic  education.  Unlike  Comenius, 
who  planned  a  complete  system  of  national  education 
beginning  with  the  school  of  the  mother's  knee,  followed 
by  the  vernacular  school  which  led  on  to  the  grammar 
school  and  university,  Milton  dealt  with  the  education 
of  upper  class  children  only,  and,  ignoring  the  elemen- 
tary system,  wrote  only  of  secondary  work.  He  sug- 
gests an  academy  in  which  both  grammar  school  and 
university  education  should  be  given  ;  he  wished  indeed 
to  do  away  with  the  established  universities  entirely. 
Here  of  course  he  is  but  voicing  the  general  feeHng  of 
the  Puritans — that  Oxford  and  Cambridge  were  so 
averse  to  anything  new  that  the  only  hope  of  effecting 
a  change  was  to  set  up  rival  universities  which  should 
from  the  first  devote  themselves  to  giving  expression 
to  realism.     This  feeling  of  the  Puritans  was  so  openly 


32  The  Development  of 

expressed  that  Antony  Wood  writes  of  the  '  endeavours 
to  pull  down  Academies  ' — '  It  is  well  knowne  '  he 
writes  in  1659,  '  that  the  Universities  of  this  land  have 
had  their  beginnings  and  continuances  to  noe  other 
end  but  to  propagate  religion  and  good  manners  and 
supply  the  nation  with  persons  chiefly  professing  the 
three  famous  faculties  of  Divinity,  Law  and  Phisick. 
But  in  these  late  times  when  the  dregs  of  people  grew 
wiser  than  their  teachers  and ...  therefore  above  ^  all 
reUgion  ordinarily  protest,  nothing  could  satisfie  their 
insatiable  desires  but  aiming  at  an  utter  subersion  of 
them 2,  church  and  schools. . . .  Intelligent  men  knew 
and  saw  verie  well  that  it  was  their  intent  to  rout  up 
all  and  to  mine  those  things  that  smelt  of  an  Academy, 
never  rejoycing  more  then  when  they  could  trample  on 
the  gowne  and  bring  humane  learning  and  arts  into 
disgrace.  This  I  may  verie  boldlie  say  and  none  can 
denye  it  that  these  domestick  confusions  among  our- 
selves about  matters  of  reUgion  and  insurrections  of 
seditious  subjects  that  have  and  doe  pretend  to  refor- 
mation, hath  bin  the  only  reasons  why  these  nurseries 
must  first  f eele  the  smart  of  their  implacasy. . . .  And 
as  it  was  a  common  matter  to  declaime  against  uni- 
versities in  publicke,  soe  was  it  also  in  the  private 
meetings  and  conventicles  of  Anabaptists,  Quakers 
and  such  like  unstable  people,  challenging  also 
sometimes  the  gowne  itself  to  oppose  what  they 
did  and  said  and  this  ever  in  the  universities  them- 
selves^.' 

Here,  no  doubt.  Wood  is  referring  to  the  extremists 

1  i.e.  '  superior  to.'  *  The  universities. 

»  Wood's  Li/ie  and  Times,  Vol.  i.  pp.  292,  293. 


Realism  in  England  33 

who,  now  and  then,  were  concerned  to  show  '  The 
sufficiency  of  the  Spirit's  teaching  without  Humane 
Learning.'  This  is  the  title  of  a  '  Treatise  tending  to 
prove  Humane  Learning  to  be  no  help  to  the  spiritual 
understanding  of  the  word  of  God  '  written  by  a  cob- 
bler, S.  How.  As  a  matter  of  fact  two  separate  con- 
troversies raged.  Puritan  extremists  of  How's  type 
contended  that  ministers  did  not  require  much  educa- 
tion and  considered  the  universities  not  merely  useless 
but  harmful.  Milton  in  his  Likeliest  means  to  remove 
hirelings  out  of  the  Church  had  some  slight  share  in 
this  discussion.  He  saw  no  need  for  the  training  of 
ministers  in  disputations  and  regarded  the  time  spent 
at  the  universities  as  wasted,  because  so  Httle  was 
gained  there.  '  A  minister  can  receive  his  education,' 
he  writes,  '  at  any  private  house  instead  of  at  the  uni- 
versity. Else  to  how  httle  purpose  are  all  these  piles 
of  sermons,  bodies  and  marrows  of  divinity  besides  all 
other  sciences  in  our  Enghsh  tongue — many  of  the 
same  books  which  in  Latin  they  read  in  the  Univer- 
sity ?  '  It  was  not  an  educated  ministry  to  which 
Milton  objected — far  from  it ;  it  was  against  the  waste 
of  time  and  the  bad  methods  at  the  universities  that 
he  wrote.  And  this  was  the  burden  of  the  writings  of 
those  who  took  part  in  the  larger  controversy  which 
dealt  with  the  question  of  the  value  of  such  training 
as  was  given  in  the  universities.  The  general  body  of 
the  Puritans  did  not  wish,  as  Wood  suggests  they  did, 
to  sweep  away  all  learning,  but  they  did  desire  to  get 
rid  of  all  narrowness  in  the  universities  and  also  of  all 
negligence  and  supineness^. 

*  The  Wood  collection  of  pamphlets  in  the  Bodleian  contains 
P.  D.  A.  3 


34  The  Development  of 

The  account  which  Wood  himself  gives  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  during  the  Commonwealth  shows  that 
so  far  from  doing  away  with  education,  the  Presby- 
terians and  Independents  who  during  the  '  Intervall ' 
filled  the  colleges,  were  earnest  hard-working  men  who 
did  their  utmost  to  promote  sound  learning. 

But  to  return  to  Milton.  The  account  which 
Edward  Phillips  gives  of  his  uncle's  teaching  shows 
that  Milton  wrote  from  a  knowledge  of  what  might 
be  done  and  that  he  went  a  great  way  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  what  he  suggested.  Apparently  Milton 
hoped  to  develop  his  small  Academy  and  to  carry  out 
his  theories,  but  in  1647  he  had  to  discontinue  his 
teaching.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose,  however, 
that  his  interest  in  education  diminished.  As  time 
went  on  he  became  more  at  one  in  his  opinions  with 
Cromwell,  and  no  doubt  the  Protector  and  his  Latin 
Secretary  were  often  associated  in  educational  schemes. 

Meanwhile  Hartlib  continued  to  publish  pamphlets. 
One  issued  in  1645  by  his  young  friend  William  Petty 
deserves  notice.  Bom  in  1623  Petty  received  the  usual 
grammar  school  education,  'at  12  he  had  acquired  a 
competent  smattering  of  Latin.'  Then  he  was  appren- 
ticed as  cabin  boy  on  an  English  merchantman^  but 
having  broken  his  leg  he  was  put  ashore  in  France  not 

one  by  Mat.  Poole  '  A  model  for  the  maintaining  of  students  of  choice 
abihties  at  the  University  and  principally  in  order  to  the  ministry ' 
it  is  followed  by  an  address  (a  '  begging  '  letter)  '  To  the  Rich  that 
love  Christ,  the  Church,  the  Gospel  and  themselves  '  and  pleads 
the  need  of  a  learned  ministry.  It  is  signed  Richard  Baxter  {1658). 
^  It  was  a  common  practice  to  apprentice  boys  in  this  way  as  a 
means  of  continuing  their  education.  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  had  been 
apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  a  merchant  in  the  Levant. 


Realism  in  England  35 

far  from  Caen.  Here  his  smattering  of  Latin  procured 
him  entrance  to  a  Jesuit  College  where  he  received 
further  instruction  in  grammar  ;  picked  up  French ; 
and  supported  himself  by  teaching  navigation  to  an 
officer  and  English  to  a  French  gentleman.  After 
returning  to  England  for  a  short  time,  he  entered  the 
Navy  and  in  1643  joined  the  army  of  the  English 
refugees  in  the  Netherlands  where  he  *  vigorously  fol- 
lowed his  studies  especially  that  of  medicine  at  Utrecht, 
Leyden  and  Amsterdam^.'  Two  years  later  he  was 
in  Paris  studying  anatomy  and,  in  1648  after  the  re- 
organisation of  the  University  by  Parliament,  reaped 
the  advantage  of  his  studies  in  his  appointment  as 
deputy  to  Clayton,  professor  of  anatomy,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  professor  in  January  1650.  The  note 
prefixed  to  the  '  Advice  of  W.  P.  to  Mr  S.  Hartlib  for 
the  Advancement  of  some  particular  parts  of  Learning  ' 
in  the  Harleian  Miscellany  seems  to  suggest  that  one 
way  of  promotion  was  to  address  a  pamphlet  on  educa- 
tion either  to  Parliament  or  to  Hartlib.  The  note  runs 
as  follows — '  Sir  Wm.  Petty  having  in  1644  invented 
an  instrument  for  double  writing  obtained  a  patent 
from  Parliament  for  the  sole  teaching  of  that  art  for 
seventeen  years.  Though  this  project  (however  pro- 
mising in  theory)  did  not  turn  to  any  great  account 
in  itself,  yet  by  this  means  our  author  was  brought 
into  the  knowledge  of  the  leading  men  of  those  times  ; 
and  observing  their  proceedings  at  Oxford,  he  resolved 
to  lay  hold  of  the  opportunity  of  fixing  himself  there. 
Having  therefore  written  his  "  Advice  to  Mr  H."  he 

^  Economic  writings  of  Sir  Wm.  Petty.     C.  H.  Hull.     Introd. 

3—2 


36  The  Development  of 

went  thither  in  1648  and  became  a  great  promoter  of 
academical  science.' 

The  pamphlet  under  discussion  expresses  contempt 
for  traditional  methods  and  advocates  a  realistic  and 
utilitarian  education.  Petty  suggests  a  '  literary  work- 
house where  children  may  be  taught  to  do  something 
towards  their  living  as  (well  as)  to  read  and  write  '  ; 
indeed  he  urges  that  every  child,  even  those  of  the 
highest  rank,  should  be  taught  some  genteel  manu- 
facture in  their  minority — such  as  making  watches, 
painting,  carving  and  embossing.  In  no  case  is  draw- 
ing or  designing  to  be  omitted  ;  the  elements  of  arith- 
metic and  geometry  are  to  be  studied  by  all  and  such 
as  '  have  any  natural  ability  and  fitness  to  music  ^  are 
to  be  encouraged  and  instructed  therein.'  The  school 
should  have  in  it  a  complete  '  theatrum  botanicum  ' — 
stalls  and  cages  for  all  strange  birds  and  beasts  ;  for 
'  children  do  most  naturally  delight  in  things  and  are 
most  capable  of  learning  them  2.' 

In  this  pamphlet  Petty  is  so  concerned  with  advo- 
cating the  new  reaUstic  or  scientific  education  that  he 
entirely  breaks  away  from  the  old  language  curriculum. 
In  this  he  is  very  different  from  Milton  who  retained 
not  only  humanistic  studies  such  as  history  and  litera- 
ture but  a  thorough  Latin  training  also.  But  Milton, 
and  Comenius  too,  included  the  scientific  branch  of 
studies  also.  It  is  certainly  unusual  to  find  a  writer 
who,  like  Petty,  ignores  the  humanities — except  to 
condemn  excessive  language  teaching.  Possibly  the 
omission  was  not  because  Petty  did  not  consider  some 

^  Petty  became  Professor  of  Music  at  Gresham  College. 

2  'Advice  of  W.  P.  to  Mr  S.  Hartlib,'  Harleian  Misc.  p.  13. 


Realism  in  England  37 

language  teaching  necessary  but  because  he  knew  it 
was  safe  to  conclude  that  languages  would  assuredly 
be  taught  and  because  he  felt  it  was  imperative  to 
concentrate  his  attention  on  the  teaching  of  those  new 
subjects  which  must  have  seemed  so  absolutely  essential 
to  an  enthusiastic  scientist. 

The  educational  reforms  of  the  period  were  chiefly 
concerned  with  two  propositions,  one  dealing  with  a 
new  method  of  teaching  the  classics,  and  the  other  with 
the  introduction  of  new  subjects.  The  two  reforms 
were  of  course  closely  connected,  and  were  based  upon 
the  corner-stone  of  Realism — '  things  not  words.' 
Comenius,  having  urged  the  reform  of  grammar 
teaching  by  advising  that  the  Latin  words  should  be 
associated  with  the  things  for  which  they  stood  and 
which  were  represented  by  illustrations  in  his  Orbis 
Pictus,  went  on  to  advocate  the  imparting  of  informa- 
tion about  the  things  themselves.  In  the  same  way 
his  followers  in  England  passed  naturally  from  advo- 
cating the  use  of  what  they  called  '  lively  and  vocal 
alphabets  '  to  the  use  of  actual  things  in  language 
lessons — '  because  some  things  cannot  be  pictured  out 
with  ink^.'  From  this  use  in  grammar  lessons  of 
pictures  and  things  it  was  not  far  to  lessons  on  the 
things  themselves,  i.e.  to  object  lessons  or  '  nature 
study.'  A  noted  schoolmaster  friend  of  Hartlib's  who 
introduced  both  these  new  ways  in  his  school  was  the 
Puritan  Hezekiah  Woodward  (1590-1675),  who  gradu- 
ated B.A.  from  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  1612.  After 
some  time  abroad,  he  opened  a  school  at  Aldermanbury 

*  Charles  Hoole  in  his  preface  to  his  translation  of  the  Orbis 
Pictus  under  the  title  of  The  Visible  World,  1659. 


38  The  Development  of 

in  1619.  About  1649,  having  been  for  some  years  in 
sympathy  with  the  Independents,  he  was  presented  by 
Cromwell  to  the  vicarage  of  Bray  near  Maidenhead. 
He  wrote  several  pamphlets  on  religious  questions,  but 
he  was  also  intensely  interested  in  education.  Teach- 
ing experience,  and  remembrance  of  his  own  early 
useless  education^,  soon  led  him  to  inquire  into  ques- 
tions affecting  method,  and  later  to  attempt  reform. 
Charles  Hoole,  in  his  translation  of  Comenius's  Orhis 
Pictus,  refers  to  Woodward  as  an  eminent  schoolmaster, 
and  his  educational  writings  have  the  advantage  of 
being  the  outcome  of  years  of  experience.  Several 
books  from  his  pen  are  important  and  prove  him  a 
realist  in  complete  agreement  with  Comenius.  Two 
pamphlets,  written  by  him  in  1641  and  bound  together, 
show  him  urging  both  the  reforms  mentioned  above, 
they  are  '  A  Light  to  Grammar  and  all  other  Arts  and 
Sciences  or  the  Rule  of  Practice,  proceeding  by  the 
clue  of  nature  and  conduct  of  right  reason  so  opening 
the  doore  thereunto,'  and  '  A  Gate  to  Sciences  opened 
by  a  naturale  key  or  a  Practicall  lecture  upon  the 
great  book  of  nature  whereby  the  childe  is  enabled 
to  reade  the  creatures  there.'  In  the  former  Wood- 
ward inquires  into  the  nature  of  the  child  mind  and 
says  that  hitherto  teachers  had  thought  only  of  the 
subject  to  be  taught,  he  feels  that  grammar  must  be 
taught  so  as  to  be  simple  to  the  child — '  hee  that  can 
stoope  lowest  and  soonest  fit  his  precognition  to  the 
child,  he  is  the  best  teacher  2,'  and  he  proceeds  to 
advocate  language  teaching  by  a  '  direct  method  '  with 

1  To  which  he  refers  in  the  preface  to  Of  the  Child's  Portion. 
'  From  the  preface  to  A  Light  to  Grammar. 


Realism  in  England  39 

plenty  of  illustration  and  explanation.  The  second 
pamphlet  urges  the  teaching  of  science.  In  his  pre- 
fatory letter  to  Hartlib,  Woodward  says  '  The  title 
tells  us  that  all  sciences  are  lighted  into  the  under- 
standing through  the  door  of  the  senses  and  this  is 
true  enough  for  certaine  it  is  that  a  child,  yea  a  man 
also  doth  taste  and  reUsh  no  knowledge  but  what  he 
finds  drencht  in  flesh  and  blood.'  There  is  no  ques- 
tion that  Realism  had  reached  England  and  was,  in 
some  schools  at  least,  making  an  onslaught  upon 
Ciceronianism.  Woodward  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant schoolmasters  to  undertake  measures  for  reform 
and  in  his  struggles,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Ciceronian  schoolmasters  was  supported  by 
Hartlib.  This  is  not  conjecture.  A  letter  addressed 
to  Hartlib  forms  the  preface  to  A  Light  to  Grammar 
and  leaves  one  in  no  doubt  as  to  Woodward's  labours 
on  the  one  hand  and  as  to  Hartlib 's  untiring  efforts 
in  encouraging  any  reformer,  on  the  other.  Woodward 
begins  by  thanking  Hartlib  for  his  encouragement,  and 
after  referring  to  the  opposition  of  those  who  prefer 
the  '  old,  old  way  that  is  always  the  best  way,'  pro- 
ceeds to  sketch  his  attempts  at  reform.  He  then 
thanks  Hartlib  again  saying  '  since  you  came  into 
these  parts  those  discouragements  about  our  school 
points  began  to  weare  out,  such  hath  beene  your  active- 
ness  therein  ;  and  which  is  the  greatest  meanes  to 
make  our  way  clearer  you  have  been  a  meanes  to 
make  Comenius  knowne  amongst  us,  the  greatest  light 
in  this  kind  of  learning  that  ever  was  set  up  in  the 
world.  What,  tho'  the  most  will  not  think  so — no 
wonder,  that  for  the  most  judge  all  out  of  the  way  who 


40  The  Develop7ne7tt  of 

drudge   not    on,   just   in   the   old   road   and   beaten 
wayi.' 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  Harthb  and  his 
friends  were  anxious  to  reform,  in  these  two  directions 
of  method  and  new  subjects,  the  education  given  in 
the  schools  of  their  day.  But  Hartlib  did  not  stop 
here.  There  was  still  another  reform  just  as  urgently 
needed.  Hartlib  seems  to  have  felt  more  and  more 
that  the  State  should  hold  itself  responsible  for  educa- 
tion which  ought  to  be  given  to  everyone.  The  idea 
that  the  giving  of  a  thoroughly  good,  practical  educa- 
tion to  the  middle  classes  is  a  matter  of  deep  concern 
to  the  State,  finds  expression  again  and  again  in  his 
own  writings  and  in  the  '  advertisements  '  or  letters 
to  the  reader  which  he  was  in  the  habit  of  prefixing 
to  the  pamphlets  he  published  for  his  friends.  For 
instance,  in  his  '  Considerations  tending  to  the  Happy 
Accomplishment  of  England's  Reformation  '  presented 
to  Parliament  in  1647  he  mentions  among  the  duties 
of  magistrates  that  of  seeing  '  schools  opened,  provided 
with  teachers,  endued  with  maintenance,  regulated  with 
constitutions . . .  and  the  right  ordering  of  these  schools 
is  to  be  lookt  upon  as  the  main  foundation  of  a  reformed 
commonwealth  without  which  no  other  work  of  refor- 
mation will  ever  bee  effectual  2.'  Again  in  his  letter 
to  the  reader  prefixed  to  John  Dury's  Reformed  School 
he  writes,  '  the  readiest  way  to  reform  both  Church 
and  Commonwealth  is  to  reform  the  schools  of  educa- 
tion therein . . .  and  the  way  to  reform  these  is  to  send 


*  Preface  to  A  Light  to  Grammar. 

^  'Considerations  tending  to  the  Happy... Reformation,'  p.  21. 


Realis7n  in  England  41 

forth  reformed  schoolmasters^.'  This  need  for  re- 
formed schools  and  teachers  was  very  strongly  felt  by 
numbers  of  the  Puritans,  many  of  whom  seem,  according 
to  this  letter  by  Hartlib,  to  have  had  an  idea  of  forming 
a  community  of  men  and  women  set  apart  to  teach 
boys  and  girls  on  the  new  lines.  Dury's  Reformed 
School  (165 1)  contains,  in  fact,  the  rules  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  boys  in  this  projected  institution,  and  the 
care  with  which  the  scheme  was  thought  out  shows 
the  tremendous  interest  taken  by  the  Puritans  in 
education.  It  may  be  said  that  this  was  only  another 
dream  of  Hartlib  and  Dury  who  spent  their  lives 
making  plans  which  could  not  be  put  into  execution. 
Possibly  this  is  true  ;  both  men  were  visionaries,  and 
there  was  probably  no  more  possibility  of  this  idea  of 
the  Reformed  Schools  being  carried  out  than  there  was 
of  Dury's  scheme  for  a  reconciliation  of  the  Protestant 
Churches  being  successful.  But  it  at  any  rate  shows 
the  direction  in  which  these  men's  minds  were  working 
and  behind  them  were  many  sympathisers.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  the  work  of  Hartlib  and  his  immediate 
circle  was  watched  with  interest  not  only  by  reforming 
schoolmasters  and  advanced  university  men,  who,  find- 
ing no  outlet  for  their  activities  in  Oxford  or  Cambridge, 
laboured  with  the  Royal  Society,  but  also  by  statesmen 
too.  Whether  it  be  true  or  not  that,  as  some  believed. 
Parliament  invited  Comenius  to  come  to  England  to 
advise  Englishmen  about  education,  it  is  true  that,  the 
war  being  over,  and  the  Commonwealth  established.  Par- 
liament turned  its  attention  to  education.  Grants  were 
made  not  only  to  the  universities  for  the  maintenance 

^  Preface  to  Reformed  School,  p.  4.  ^ 


42  The  Development  of 

of  the  masterships  of  colleges  and  to  Scotland  for 
educational  purposes  but  also  to  small  necessitous 
schools  and  schoolmasters  in  different  parts  of  the 
country^.  A  new  university  was  planned  for  the 
North  of  England  to  be  situated  at  Durham,  and  pro- 
bably the  scheme  broached  at  the  time  of  Comenius' 
visit  to  London  was  revived,  for  Gresham  College  and 
the  meetings  which  developed  into  the  Royal  Society 
naturally  suggested  that  there  were  good  grounds  for 
establishing  a  imiversity  in  the  capital. 

The  Commonwealth  then,  may  be  described  as  a 
time  of  considerable  educational  activity  when  men 
were  big  with  hope  for  the  future  of  learning.  The 
work  done  between  1640-1660  was  the  natural  outcome 
of  the  attempts  made  in  those  and  the  preceding  years 
to  influence  public  opinion  in  the  direction  of  demand- 
ing educational  reform.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
leaders  among  the  Puritans  were  convinced  of  the  im- 
portance of  education  and  of  the  fact  that  without 
reform  in  education  there  could  be  no  reform  in  the 
State.  The  majority  of  them  had  accepted  the  '  new 
education  '  of  the  Realists  and  had  quite  definite  ideas 
as  to  what  reforms  were  necessary.  They  hoped  that 
Realism  would  change  existing  institutions  as  much  as 
possible,  and  that  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the 
universities  and  those  grammar  schools  which  remained 
Ciceronian,  new  institutions  might  be  started.  Men 
felt  that  the  dream  of  Bacon  and  Comenius,  and  of  the 
early  Protestants  indeed,  was  about  to  be  reahsed,  and 

1  See  article  on  '  State  and  Education  during  the  Commonwealth ' 
by  Prof.  Foster  Watson  in  the  English  Historical  Review  for  Jan.  1900 
and  see  also  A.  F.  Leach,  Educational  Charters,  pp.  535-538. 


Realism  in  England  43 

that  learning  which  had  been  the  monopoly  of  the 
upper  classes  was  at  last  within  the  reach  of  every 
individual  who  desired  it.  During  the  Commonwealth 
the  door  leading  into  the  world  of  knowledge,  of  in- 
creased capacity,  and  of  fuller  life,  was  slowly  opening 
to  admit  the  men  who  stood  expectant  without.  But 
just  as  they  were  on  the  threshold  the  door  was  shut 
— shut  by  the  Restoration,  and  the  way  barred  by 
the  Clarendon  Code. 

Probably  no  event  in  English  history  has  had  so 
far-reaching  and  disastrous  an  effect  upon  education 
as  the  Restoration.  Reform  was  put  back  nearly 
200  years.  After  the  return  of  Charles  II  there  was 
the  same  attempt  made  to  get  rid  of  everything  Puritan 
in  education  as  in  Church  and  State.  Clarendon  and 
his  supporters  understood  only  too  well  the  Puritan 
demand  for  a  reformed  education.  If  Church  and 
State  were  to  be  '  restored,'  then  education  too  must 
be  '  restored.'  If  Church  and  State  were  to  remain, 
they  and  they  alone  must  control  education.  Puritans 
must  be  thrust  out  of  the  Church,  realists — generally 
Puritans  too — out  of  the  schools.  The  very  fact  that 
so  much  attention  was  paid  by  the  Restoration  Parlia- 
ment to  education  is  evidence  of  the  interest  taken  in 
it  by  the  Puritans.  Clarendon  was  plainly  aware  of 
the  presence  of  a  reforming  party  in  the  schools  and  he 
and  his  friends  were  as  alarmed  by  the  '  advanced  ' 
views  of  many  of  the  teachers  as  by  those  of  some  of 
the  clergy.  It  was  therefore  felt  that  to  secure  uni- 
formity of  worship  and  belief,  and  the  supremacy  of 
the  State-Church,  independence  of  thought  and  action 
must  be  crushed  in  the  school  as  well  as  in  the  Church ; 


44     Development  of  Realism  in  England 

it  was  of  no  use  requiring  uniformity  from  preachers 
while  leaving  teachers  free  to  spread  new  ideas  which 
were  so  dangerously  contemptuous  of  authority  and 
tradition.  No  time  was  lost  therefore  in  passing  the 
Conformity  legislation  of  1662  and  the  following  years 
— legislation  which  affected  the  schools  and  teachers 
no  less  than  the  churches  and  clergy.  The  effect  on 
the  churches  is  well  known  ;  the  effect  on  the  schools 
was  similar.  From  1662  date  the  Dissenting  churches  ; 
from  that  year  also  date  the  Dissenting  Academies. 
The  Dissenting  Academies  gave  not  merely  an  educa- 
tion to  Dissenters  but  a  '  Dissenting  '  education — an 
education  that  is,  which  was  different  from  that  in 
the  other  schools — an  education  which  became  much 
broader  than  that  in  the  universities  and  in  the  schools 
established  by  law  and  controlled  by  the  Church.  As 
will  be  seen  the  '  Dissenting  '  education  was  realistic  ; 
for  the  Dissenters  kept  alive  in  their  Academies  the 
spirit  of  Harthb  and  of  those  who  had  worked  with 
him  in  the  spread  of  realism. 


II 


THE   RISE   AND   PROGRESS   OF  THE   DISSENTING 
ACADEMIES 

When  the  complete  History  of  Education  in  England 
appears,  probably  no  chapter  will  cause  more  surprise 
to  all  students  of  education,  except  the  few  already 
interested  in  that  time,  than  the  one  dealing  with  the 
period  1660-1800  which  saw  the  rise  of  the  Dissenting 
Academies, 

These  academies,  diverging  from  the  main  stream 
of  education,  drained  off  more  and  more  of  its  life 
and  vigour  until  the  parent  stream  grew  weaker  and 
weaker. 

The  change  from  the  flourishing,  energetic  grammar 
schools  of  the  14th,  15th,  and  i6th  centuries  to  the 
decaying  lifeless  ones  of  the  17th  and  i8th  is  so  remark- 
able that  it  has  been  considered  as  the  chief  feature 
of  the  period,  and  the  schools  which  make  those  years 
really  interesting  and  noteworthy  have  been  overlooked. 
The  Dissenting  Academies  were,  however,  the  greatest 
schools  of  their  day.  During  a  period  when  the  gram- 
mar schools  slept  and  when  the  universities  were  sterile 
the  Dissenting  Academies  were  not  merely  in  existence, 
but  were  thoroughly  alive  and  active,  doing  remarkably 
good  work.     In  an  age  when  those  centres  of  learning 


46  The  Rise  and  Progress 

to  which  men  naturally  turned  for  instniction,  lament- 
ably failed  to  fulfil  the  purpose  of  their  founders,  the 
Dissenting  Academies  did  their  utmost  to  satisfy  the 
needs  of  the  youth  of  this  country,  and  an  inquiry  into 
the  state  of  education  between  1660  and  1800  shows 
us  that  they  stood  immeasurably  higher,  as  regards 
efficiency,  than  any  other  educational  institutions. 
The  fact  was  soon  recognised  by  men  of  their  own  day 
with  the  result  that  the  academies  trained  men  who 
filled  the  foremost  places  in  every  department  of  life, 
and  that  they  eventually  developed  into  the  most 
important  educational  system  of  their  day.  Without 
the  story  of  the  Dissenting  Academies  the  history  of 
education  in  England  for  those  140  years  would  indeed 
be  a  dull  and  barren  record  ;  as  it  is,  these  academies 
prevent  those  years  from  being  a  reproach  to  us  ;  for 
while  other  institutions  were  at  a  standstill  they  pro- 
gressed, and  it  is  therefore  to  them  that  the  honour  of 
furthering  the  development  of  educational  opinion  in 
this  country  belongs. 

The  Dissenting  Academies  were  very  largely  the 
result  of  the  Conformity  legislation  of  1662  and  the 
following  years  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  passing  of  the 
Clarendon  Code  forced  upon  the  Dissenters  the  execu- 
tion of  educational  projects  which  had  been  in  the 
minds  of  Puritans  before  1660.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  ^ 
provided  that '  Every  Schoolmaster  keeping  any  public 
or  private  school  and  every  person  instructing  or  teach- 
ing any  youth  in  any  house  or  private  family  as  a 
tutor  or  School  master  '  should  subscribe  a  declaration 

1  For  the  complete  text  see  Documents  relating  to  Act  oj  Uni- 
formity, p.  391. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       47 

that  he  would  conform  to  the  liturgy  as  by  law  estab- 
lished and  should  also  obtain  a  licence  permitting  him 
to  teach  from  '  his  respective  archbishop,  bishop  or 
ordinary  of  the  diocese.' 

The  effect  of  the  Conformity  legislation  was  to 
accentuate  the  differences  between  what  may  be  called 
the  orthodox  State  schools  and  the  unorthodox  Dis- 
senting schools.  Moreover,  far  from  putting  an  end  to 
the  teaching  of  the  Nonconformists,  the  Clarendon  Code 
only  served  to  give  it  that  impetus  which  finally  set 
the  Dissenting  schools  far  in  advance  of  those — the 
grammar  schools — under  the  control  of  the  Church  ; 
for  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  Dissenters  would 
offer  no  resistance  to  legislation  which  affected  what 
they  held  to  be  so  precious — liberty  of  conscience 
and  a  free  liberal  education.  The  ejected  ministers 
and  teachers  were  ready  to  fight  for  both.  Of  course, 
there  was  too,  the  practical  side  of  the  situation. 
These  men  had  to  obtain  a  living  and  consequently 
stem  necessity  was  added  to  incHnation,  and  therefore 
the  determination  was  strengthened,  with  the  result 
that  further  legislation,  in  the  shape  of  the  Five  Mile 
Act  of  1665,  followed. 

The  fact  that  this  Act  was  felt  to  be  necessary  only 
three  years  after  the  Act  of  Uniformity  is  in  itself  full 
of  significance.  The  Act  was  most  severe  ;  Noncon- 
formists were  forbidden  to  teach  under  the  enormous 
penalty  of  £40,  and  the  Act  was  very  strictly  enforced 
by  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  Arch- 
bishop Sheldon  ordered  the  bishops  to  see  whether 
'  said  schoolmasters,  ushers,  schoolmistresses  and  in- 
structors or  teachers  of  youth  publicly  or  privately 


48  The  Rise  and  Progress 

do  themselves  frequent  the  pubhc  prayers  of  the 
Church  and  cause  their  "  scholars  "  to  do  the  same  ; 
and  whether  they  appear  well-affected  to  the  govern- 
ment of  His  Majesty  and  the  doctrine  and  discipline 
of  the  Church  of  England  ^Z 

This  increase  of  legislation  and  this  diocesan  in- 
spection of  teachers  can  mean  only  one  thing — that 
Dissenting  Academies  were  even  then  becoming  im- 
portant. The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  Dissenting 
Academies  were  supported  and  became  important 
because  of  three  causes  which  operated  quite  naturally. 
First,  Nonconformist  ministers  and  laymen  would  not 
allow  their  sons  to  go  to  the  universities  where  they 
would  have  to  subscribe  the  Act  of  Uniformity  and 
where  they  would  be  taught  the  doctrines  for  the 
sake  of  which  their  fathers  had  left  livings,  profes- 
sorships or  tutorships.  Secondly,  just  as  the  ejected 
clergy  were  among  the  best  in  the  country,  so  the 
ejected  teachers  were  among  the  most  efficient  and 
progressive — the  ejected  teachers  were,  of  course, 
almost  always  clergymen.  Reference  to  the  list  of 
academies  and  tutors  will  show  that  the  majority  of 
these  men  had  been  educated  at  a  university  and  that 
many  of  them  in  1662  were  fellows  or  tutors  in  Oxford 
or  Cambridge^.  It  will  be  clearly  seen  that  in  propor- 
tion as  the  Dissenting  Academies  profited  by  the  good 
work  of  the  ejected  teachers  the  grammar  schools 
lost,  so  that,  as  has  been  well  said,  '  the  first  result  of 
the  Conformity  legislation  was  the  destruction  of  the 


1  de  Montmorency,  The  Progress  of  Education  in  England,  p.   46. 
^  Appendix  No.  I.     Academies,  Period  I. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        49 

Elizabethan  system^.'  This  brings  us  to  the  third 
cause.  It  was  not  long  before  the  effect  of  the  legis- 
lation on  the  existing  schools  and  on  the  universities 
was  felt  and  people  in  those  days  were  quite  as  anxious 
to  get  as  good  an  education  as  possible  for  their  money 
as  they  are  to-day  and  therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
good  education — the  best  education,  in  fact — Anglicans 
were  very  soon  sent  to  the  academies  of  the  Dissenters 
which,  requiring  no  oath  of  belief  in  any  doctrine,  were 
open  to  every  one.  The  following  extract  from  Wilson's 
'  History  and  Antiquities  of  Dissenting  Churches  and 
meeting  houses  in  London,  Westminster  and  South- 
wark  '  is  but  one  of  a  number  which  might  be  given  to 
illustrate  this  :  '  Mr  Wm.  Hocker  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  classical  learning  from  Rev.  Joseph  Halfey 
ejected  from  the  Rectory  of  St  Michael  Penkerel  whose 
house,  on  its  being  known  that  for  lack  of  a  convenient 
school  he  had  taken  on  himself  the  instruction  of  his 
own  children,  was  thronged  with  gentlemen's  sons  of 
the  first  rank,  though  many  of  them  were  averse  from 
Nonconformity. ' 

It  was  these  three  causes,  then,  which  led  to  the 
immediate  success  of  the  Dissenting  Academies.  As 
time  went  on  the  Dissenters  felt  more  secure  and  their 
work  gained  more  and  more  recognition.  This  is  what 
one  would  expect ;  the  severe  legislation  naturally  led 
to  a  reaction  which  expressed  itself  in  no  uncertain 
manner  in  the  judgment  given  in  Bates'  case,  1670,  to 
the  effect  that  if  the  schoolmaster  were  a  nominee  of 
,the  founder  or  of  the  lay  patron  of  a  school  he  could 
not  be  ejected  for  teaching  without  a  Bishop's  licence. 

*  de  Montmorency,  The  Progress  of  Education  in  England. 

P.  D.  A.  4 


50  The  Rise  and  Progress 

Bates'  case  was  a  direct  incentive  to  Dissenters  to 
found  schools.  Evidence  of  the  fact  that  advantage 
was  quickly  taken  by  the  Dissenters  of  the  pronounce- 
ment of  the  law-courts  is  shown  by  a  table  giving  the 
dates  when  the  endowed  schools,  in  existence  in  1851, 
were  founded,  which  is  given  in  Horace  Mann's  Popular 
Education  in  Great  Britain — the  official  report  of  the 
Commission  of  Inquiry  into  Charities.  The  Commis- 
sioners reported  3000  endowed  schools  and  of  these 
nearly  1000  were  founded  between  1660-1730 — these 
were  of  course  chiefly  elementary  schools  due  not  only 
to  the  effect  of  Bates'  case  but  also  to  Cox's  case,  1700, 
by  which  it  was  held  that  '  there  was  not  and  never 
had  been  any  ecclesiastical  control  over  any  other 
than  grammar  schools  ' ;  to  Douse's  case  which  affirmed 
that  it  was  not  a  civil  offence  to  keep  an  elementary 
school  without  a  bishop's  licence ;  and  to  the  Act  of 
1714  which  exempted  elementary  schools  from  the 
penalties  of  the  Conformity  legislation^. 

But  it  is  not  with  Dissenting  schools  in  general  that 
this  book  is  concerned  but  with  Dissenting  Academies, 
a  distinction  which  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  Dis- 
senting schools  were  charity  foundations  and  probably 
differed  little  from  the  ordinary  schools  of  the  day. 
The  Dissenting  Academies  on  the  other  hand,  were 
schools  of  university  standing.  That  is  to  say  that 
the  academies  were  in  the  words  of  Toulmin  '  Semin- 
aries, which,  but  for  a  malignant  policy  would  never 
have  existed,'  and  which  '  were  opened  in  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom  to  meet  the  wishes  of  such  as  would 

*  de  Montmorency,  The  Progress  of  Education,  p.  42. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        51 

otherwise  have  sent  their  sons  to  the  Universities^.' 
There  is  clear  evidence  (from  the  hsts  of  students  with 
dates  of  entry  and  from  Uves  of  eminent  men  who 
received  an  academy  education)  which  shows  that  boys 
went  to  the  academies  at  the  age  of  15,  16  or  17,  i.e. 
at  the  ordinary  university  age.  Many  names  might  be 
given  ;  among  them  are :  Belsham  entered  at  Daventry, 
and  Chorlton  at  Rathmell  when  15,  Doddridge  and 
Caleb  Ashworth  both  entered  when  16,  John  Ashe 
went  to  Rathmell  when  16  ;  some  were  older  :  Thos. 
Dixon  was  19  when  he  entered  Chorlton's  Academy, 
Wm.  Bull  went  to  Daventry  when  20  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Defoe  and  Calamy  were  only  14  when  they  went 
to  Newington  Green  and  Cradock's  Academy  respec- 
tively. In  a  letter  to  the  Rev.  John  Barker,  Philip 
Doddridge,  D.D.,  Principal  of  the  Academy  at  North- 
ampton, writes  that  he  does  not  generally  take  boys 
who  have  not  been  through  a  grammar  school  and  got  a 
good  knowledge  of  classics. 

Occasionally  an  explanation  of  the  adoption  of  the 
term  Academy  has  been  attempted.  It  has  been 
suggested^  that  the  Dissenters  used  the  term  in  con- 
scious imitation  of  Calvin  whose  Academy  established 
at  Geneva  in  1559  was  '  the  first  European  University 
not  fortified  by  powers  conveyed  under  a  Papal  Bull.' 
It  has  been  suggested  also  that  in  his  choice  of  the 
term  Academy,  Calvin,  '  in  thus  invoking  Plato  who 
taught   in  the  olive  grove  of   Academe,'  wished  to 

*  Toulmin's  Historical  View  of  the  State  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters 
in  England,  Vol.  ii.  p.  217. 

^  In  an  address  on  Early  Nonconformity  and  Education  by 
Principal  Gordon. 

4—2 


52  The  Rise  and  Progress 

proclaim  his  sympathy  with  Humanism  and  to  empha- 
sise his  breach  with  the  Schoolmen.  It  is  impossible  to 
say  how  much  truth  there  is  in  these  suppositions  ; 
they  are  certainly  attractive  to  anyone  dealing  with 
the  Humanism  of  the  Dissenting  Academies  but  they 
must  not  on  that  account  be  taken  over  without  some 
examination. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  evidence  in  support 
of  the  view  that  the  term  Academy  was  intended  by 
Calvin  to  mean  anything  more  than  an  institution  at 
which  higher  education  was  obtainable.  The  word 
Academy  was  in  general  use  at  the  time.  It  was 
considered  as  synonymous  with  university  and  was 
constantly  employed  to  designate  the  great  universities 
of  Europe^  or  to  indicate  any  institution  giving  in- 
struction in  the  subjects  of  the  quadrivium.  The 
instruction  given  by  Sturm  at  Strasburg  in  the  higher 
subjects  received  recognition  when  in  1562  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II  gave  to  the  Gymnasium  the  right  to 
grant  degrees,  and  when,  as  a  consequence,  the  Gym- 
nasium became  known  as  an  Academy. 

As  far  as  England  is  concerned  the  Dissenters  were 
certainly  not  the  first  to  apply  the  term  to  a  place  of 
higher  education,  for  there  are  numerous  instances  of 
the  same  general  use  which  obtained  on  the  Continent. 
Antony  Wood  often  speaks  of  Academies  when  re- 
ferring to  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  ; 
Milton  in  the  Tractate  uses  the  term  merely  as  equi- 
valent to  university,  to  a  place  giving  higher  education ; 

'  This  is  shown  by  the  titles  of  several  books  on  the  reform  of 
the  University  of  Paris  by  Ramus,  e.g.  Pro philosophica  Parisiensis 
Academics  disciplina  oratio.     Published  1551. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies         53 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  Bolton,  Gerbier  and  others  who 
endeavoured  to  introduce  the  education  of  the  French 
courtly  Academies  into  England  clearly  employed  the 
term  to  indicate  an  institution  giving  instruction  in 
the  university  subjects  of  the  quadrivium. 

The  fact  that  the  term  Academy  was  widely  used 
in  Scotland,  owing  no  doubt  to  the  influence  of  Knox 
and  Calvin,  seems  to  give  colour  to  the  idea  that  the 
Dissenters  were  invoking  Calvin  as  he  is  thought  to 
have  invoked  Plato,  and  certainly  the  Enghsh  Puritans 
were  influenced  by  Calvin  but  they  were  also  un- 
doubtedly and  to  a  very  great  extent  influenced  by 
their  intercourse  with  Holland  and  Germany. 

Possibly  the  term  was  used  by  the  Dissenters  to 
indicate  that  their  work  was  of  university  and  not  of 
grammar  school  standard  ;  indeed  the  use  of  the  term 
by  Hartlib  in  1660  to  describe  a  school  of  a  definitely 
realistic  type  may  have  suggested  that  '  Academy  ' 
should  be  adopted  as  the  name  for  these  institutions 
which  were  so  very  different  from  the  ordinary  schools 
of  the  day.  But  it  must  after  all  be  remembered  that 
it  is  highly  probable  that  in  the  early  days  the 
Dissenters  themselves  spoke  of  their  schools  or  semin- 
aries and  not  of  their  Academies. 

An  interesting  parallel  might  be  drawn  between 
Calvin's  Academy  and  the  Dissenting  Academies. 
Both  were  primarily  for  the  training  of  ministers  for 
the  Church  ;  both  were  unorthodox,  i.e.  both  gave  an 
education  in  advance  of  their  day  and  both  were  for 
a  time  brilliantly  successful  in  meeting  the  demand  for 
a  new  education.  Inasmuch  as  the  Dissenting  Acade- 
mies were  at  enmity  with  the  ecclesiastical  authority 


54  The  Rise  and  Progress 

of  their  day  and  aimed  at  supplying  an  educated 
ministry  for  their  own  Church  they  may  be  considered 
as  in  Une  with  Calvin's  Academy,  but  except  in  so  far 
as  both  Calvin's  Academy  and  the  Dissenting  Academies 
in  England  were  the  outcome  of  Protestant  enthusiasm 
for  education  there  is  no  definite  connection  between 
them.  On  the  Continent  Protestant  schools  and 
Academies  were  founded  as  the  result  of  a  definite 
Protestant  policy  which  aimed  at  the  propagation  of 
Protestant  teaching.  That  these  Protestant  schools 
were  important  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  Jesuit 
schools  were  founded  to  counteract  their  influence.  In 
England  there  was  no  such  general  development,  for 
after  the  Reformation  all  the  Church  schools  and  the 
universities  became  Protestant.  With  the  Restora- 
tion and  the  Clarendon  Code  the  Dissenters,  cut  off 
from  the  education  suppHed  by  Church  and  State, 
were  compelled  to  provide  for  themselves  and  had  no 
conception  of  the  importance  of  the  work  they  under- 
took and  certainly  no  idea  of  establishing  an  educa- 
tional system  which  should  rival  the  universities. 

The  course  in  the  academies  usually  extended  over 
four  years,  and  throughout  the  country  it  was  under- 
stood that  before  entering,  the  students  must  have  a 
general  knowledge  of  classics.  For  example,  in  1695, 
the  Independent  or  Congregational  Fund  Board  was 
established  (i)  to  assist  poor  ministers,  (2)  to  give 
young  men  who  had  already  received  a  classical  educa- 
tion, the  theological  and  other  training  preparatory 
to  the  Christian  ministry.  Later,  in  1730,  the  King's 
Head  Society  was  founded  by  laymen  in  London  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  management  of  the  Fimd 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        55 

Academies.  '  One  chief  point  of  objection  was  the 
rule  which  Hmited  its  students  to  those  who  had 
already  passed  through  a  classical  training  1.'  They 
resolved  to  found  an  academy  with  a  six  years'  course, 
where  young  men,  without  a  general  classical  education, 
would  receive  it  during  the  first  two  years  and  could 
then  proceed  to  the  usual  classical-theological  course. 

Naturally  the  theological  course  was  the  most  im- 
portant ;  it  was  wide  and  included  Divinity  lectures, 
comprising  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  and  of  the 
Jewish  language  and  antiquities,  Ethics,  Natural  Philo- 
sophy and  Metaphysics.  Lectures  on  sermon  writing 
and  pastoral  care  were  also  given  and  the  sermons  of 
Baxter,  Tillotson,  Charnock  and  others  were  read  as 
models  by  the  students.  This  work  followed  a  train- 
ing in  Logic  and  Rhetoric  which  the  theological  students 
shared  with  those  entered  in  other  faculties^. 

^  Senatus  Academicus,  p.  51. 

^  In  his  Defence  of  the  Academies  (against  Samuel  Wesley's  attack) 
Palmer  gives  an  account  of  the  course  at  Bethnal  Green  where  he  was 
educated  under  Dr  Kerr.  The  ist  year  time-table  is  shown  in  full ; 
Logic  and  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  Rhetoric  were  replaced  by  Meta- 
physics in  2nd  year.  Ethics  in  3rd  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  4th. 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

Logic 

Rhetoric 

(Disputation) 

Logic 
Rhetoric 

Logic 

Rhetoric 

(Disputation) 

Logic 
Rhetoric 

Logic 

Rhetoric 

(Disputation) 

Logic 
Rhetoric 

ist  year.    Div. 
Lecture.      [Bu- 
chanan's Psalm] 

Dinner 

Div.  Gk.  Test. 

Divinity  Practical 

Dinner 
Classics 
Div.Prac. 

Dinner 
Classics 
Div.  Prac. 

Dinner 

Classics 
Div.Prac. 

Dinner 
Div.Gk.Test. 
Div.  Prac. 

Dinner 

2nd  year.     Meta- 
physics 
3rd  year.     Ethics 
4th  year.     Nat. 
PhUo. 

Sat.  Morn,  all 
superior  classes 
declaimed  by 
turns  4  &  4  on 
some  noble  & 
useful  subject 
such  as  "  De 
Pace." 

56  The  Rise  and  Progress 

The  Dissenting  Academies  were  not  merely  institu- 
tions of  university  standing,  they  were  the  rivals  of  the 
universities.  No  true  conception  of  the  greatness  and 
importance  of  these  academies  can  be  formed  unless  it 
be  clearly  understood  that  though  first  starting  practi- 
cally even  with  the  grammar  schools  they  outstripped 
not  only  these  schools  in  efficiency  and  influence,  but 
having  afterwards  adopted  university  subjects  and 
methods — moved  to  a  higher  plane  as  it  were — they 
soon  outstripped  the  universities  also.  They  became, 
then,  rivals  who  were  acknowledged  as  such,  not  only 
by  the  general  public  who  supported  them,  but  by  the 
university  authorities  who  bitterly  opposed  them  and 
did  their  utmost  to  ruin  them.  As  a  result,  there  were 
constant  endeavours  made  to  show  that  the  tutors 
were  preaching  and  teaching  schism  and  resistance  to 
civil  law  and  the  King.  One  of  the  most  notable 
disputes  in  this  connection  was  the  Wesley-Palmer 
controversy^.  This  hostility  on  the  part  of  the  acade- 
mies is  referred  to  also  in  More  Short  ways  with  Dis- 
senters where  Defoe  (educated  at  Newington  Green 
Academy)  says  '  Open  a  door  to  us  in  your  universities 
and  let  our  youth  be  fairly  admitted  to  study  there 
without  imposing  oaths  and  obligations  upon  them  and 
it  shall  no  more  be  said  that  we  erect  schools  in  opposi- 
sion  to  you.'  The  door  remained  closed  ;  but  in  spite 
of  opposition,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  the  academies 
prospered. 

Though  the  Dissenting  Academies  became  so  very 
important,  they  were  by  no  means  large  or  numerous. 

^  See  page  67  for  full  account  of  Wesley's  remarks  about 
academies. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        57 

Many  of  them  were  started  by  the  ejected  men,  in 
their  own  homes,  where  they  taught  their  sons  and 
those  of  a  few  friends. 

Some  of  the  academies  thus  started  lasted  only  a 
few  years  and  died  with  their  founder — of  these  the 
one  at  Islington  under  Ralph  Button,  M.A.,  1672-1680, 
is  an  example.  Owing  to  persecution  under  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  and  the  Five  Mile  Act,  the  work  was  often 
interrupted ;  some  of  the  tutors  suffered  fine  and 
imprisonment,  and  others  had  often  to  remove  many 
times  to  out-of-the-way  parts  of  the  country.  Ihe 
academies  were,  therefore,  very  scattered,  and  as  a 
consequence  of  this  isolation  they  were  carried  on  by 
men  who  had  little  or  no  communication  with  others 
similarly  engaged,  with  the  result  that  each  academy 
had  its  individual  characteristics.  In  attempting  to 
form  an  idea  of  them  and  of  the  true  nature  of  their 
work,  one  has  to  guard  against  taking  what  is  recorded 
of  one  as  applicable  to  all.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
features  com.mon  to  all  can  be  discerned  ;  for  though 
the  tutors  at  their  head  acted  separately  with  regard 
to  details,  yet  they  were  one  in  spirit  and  aim  and  in 
the  more  important  matters  acted  in  accordance  with 
the  opinions  of  their  co-rehgionists  ;  in  the  details  of 
time-table  they  differed,  in  requiring  no  religious  test  , 
and  in  general  principles  of  teaching  they  agreed.  ^/ 

The  academies  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,, 
(i)  those  of  the  first  period,  1663  to  about  1690,  founded 
by  ejected  ministers  in  which,  as  a  rule,  there  was  only 
one  tutor,  (2)  those  founded  1691-1750  in  which  there 
were  several  tutors  and  which  were  more  '  public  * 
than  the  early  ones  and  (3)  those  founded  much  later^ 


58  The  Rise  and  Progress 

about  1750,  which  gave,  in  addition  to  a  professional 
training,  a  good  general  education  to  youths  going  into 
"business^. 

The  academies  of  the  period  1663-1690  were  '  pri- 
vate '  with  usually  about  20  or  30  students  and  only 
one  tutor.  Dissenters  and  Anglicans  were  trained  to- 
gether for  the  learned  professions — the  Church,  Law 
and  Medicine.  The  first  period  academies  resembled 
the  grammar  schools,  but  showed  a  tendency  to  work 
on  university  lines,  the  tutors,  university  men,  naturally 
employed  all  the  methods  already  familiar  to  them  2. 
Latin  was  not  only  used  in  all  the  classes  and  lectures, 
but  had  to  be  spoken  by  the  students  until  after  evening 
prayers  ;  Latin  essays  and  disputations  were  required  ; 
public  exhibitions  of  skill  in  reciting  Latin  and  Greek 
declensions  were  given  once  a  week  and  a  recital  of 
the  whole  grammar,  '  especially  of  the  Oxford  Latin 
Grammar  '  once  a  year. 

One  of  the  first  of  these  academies  was  that  opened 
about  1667  by  Charles  Morton  in  London  (Newington 
Green  (2),  see  Appendix  no.  I).  It  is  of  special  interest 
seeing  that  it  was  there  that  Daniel  Defoe  was  educated. 

Charles  Morton,  M.A.  (Wadham,  Oxford),  the  son 
of  Nicholas  Morton,  Rector  of  Blisland  (Bodmin),  was 
descended  from  Cardinal  Morton.  There  are  con- 
flicting accounts  as  to  the  date  when  he  started  his 
academy,  but  it  was  certainly  opened  after  the  Five 

^  For  complete  list  see  Appendix  No.  I. 

*  '  Our  dissenting  academies  arose  out  of  the  universities. 
Persons  educated  in  the  universities  afterwards  taught  what  they  had 
there  learned  and  what  some  of  them  had  there  taught.'  Bogue 
and  Bennett's  History  of  Dissenters,  i.  p.  296. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        59 

Mile  Act  (prior  to  1665  Morton  was  in  Cornwall)  and 
probably  not  after  1670,  for,  according  to  Bogue  and 
Bennett,  Morton  had  an  academy  nearly  20  years, 
and  it  is  known  that  in  1685  he  went  to  New  England. 
Morton  was  famous  for  his  proficiency  in  mathematics  ; 
while  a  student  at  Oxford  his  work  won  the  special 
notice  of  the  Warden,  Dr  Wilkins,  brother-in-law  to 
Cromwell.  Morton's  qualifications  for  his  position 
were  acknowledged  on  all  sides  and  under  him  the 
academy  was  most  efficient. 

Information  about  this  academy  is  to  be  obtained 
from  the  great  Wesley-Palmer  controversy.  Samuel 
Wesley  (father  of  John  and  Charles)  first  attended 
Veal's  Academy  at  Stepney,  and  afterwards,  failing 
to  enter  at  Oxford,  went  to  Newington  Green.  Wesley 
afterwards  conformed  and  was  untiring  in  his  attacks 
upon  Dissenters.  In  his  '  Letter  from  a  country 
Divine . .  on  the  education  of  the  Dissenters  in  their 
private  academies  in  several  parts  of  this  nation  '  he 
writes  of  Morton's  Academy,  and  his  account  is  worth 
quoting.  '  This  Academy,'  he  writes,  '  was  indeed 
the  most  considerable,  having  annext  a  fine  Garden, 
Bowling  Green,  Fish  Pond  and  within,  a  laboratory 
and  some  not  inconsiderable  rarities  with  air  pump, 
thermometer,  and  all  sorts  of  mathematical  instru- 
ments.' The  academy  was  evidently  very  much  up- 
to-date.  Interesting  light  is  also  thrown  on  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  academy.  After  mentioning  the  names 
of  several  persons  of  quality  who  were  there,  he  adds, 
'  and  not  a  few  knights'  and  baronets'  sons  and  one 
Lord's  son,  who  were  sent  hither  to  avoid  the  debau- 
cheries of  the  universities,  though  some  of  'em  made 


6o  The  Rise  and  Progress 

themselves  sufficiently  remarkable  while  they  were 
with  us.' 

Anxious  as  Wesley  was  to  condemn  the  academies 
whenever  possible,  he  could  not  say  more  than  this  ; 
and,  of  course,  he  practically  admits  that  in  the  eyes 
of  the  public  the  academies  were  better,  as  regards 
discipline,  than  the  universities.  Morton  cannot  be 
blamed  for  the  misdemeanours  of  youths  whose  parents 
were  afraid  to  send  them  to  Oxford  or  Cambridge. 
According  to  Wesley,  the  students  themselves  were 
mainly  responsible  for  the  discipline.  They  had,  it 
appears,  '  a  sort  of  democratical  government '  amongst 
them,  each  man  being  allowed  to  propose  laws  and 
punishments,  and  to  vote  (by  ballot)  their  adoption 
or  rejection. 

In  his  '  Defence  of  the  Dissenting  Education  in 
their  private  academies  in  answer  to  Mr  Wesley's 
written  reflections  upon  them  '  Palmer  describes  his 
education  under  Dr  Kerr  at  Bethnal  Green  (Period  II). 
He  speaks  eulogistically  of  Kerr's  treatment  of  the 
classical  authors  and  gives  a  list  of  studies  and  books 
similar  to  those  given  in  other  accounts^. 

It  is  to  Defoe  that  we  owe  further  details  of  the 
subjects  and  methods  in  Newington  Green.  In  one  of 
his  Reviews  Defoe  says  he  had  been  master  of  five 
languages,  that  he  had  studied  mathematics,  natural 
philosophy,  logic,  geography,  history,  and  '  politics 
as  a  Science.'  The  last  subject,  as  part  of  the  cur- 
riculum of  Defoe,  whose  after  life  was  made  up  largely 
of  pamphlets  and  prison  as  a  result  of  politics  '  as  an 
art,'  is  interesting  ! 

^  See  The  Bethnal  Green  Course,  p.  62. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        6i 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  Modern  Languages 
at  Morton's  Academy,  we  have  still  further  evidence 
from  Defoe,  who,  in  reply  to  one  Tutchin  who  had  said 
that  Defoe  was  no  scholar,  wrote  '  As  to  my  little 
learning  and  this  man's  great  capacities,  I  fairly  chal- 
lenge him  to  translate  with  me  any  Latin,  French  and 
Italian  author,  and  afterwards  to  translate  them  each 
cross  ways,  for  the  sum  of  £20  each  book  ;  and  by  this 
he  shall  have  an  opportunity  to  show  before  the  world 
how  much  Daniel  Defoe,  hosier,  is  inferior  to  Mr  Tutchin, 
gentleman^.' 

With  regard  to  the  method  of  the  academies  of  his 
day,  the  founder  of  the  English  novel  has  a  word  of 
censure.  '  'Tis  evident  that  the  great  imperfection 
of  our  academies  is  the  want  of  conversation.  This 
the  pubhc  universities  enjoy,  ours  cannot. .  .from  our 
schools  we  have  abundance  of  instances  of  men  that  come 
away  masters  of  vScience,  critics  in  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
perfect  in  languages  and  perfectly  ignorant  of  their 
mother  tongue^.'  Defoe  does  record,  however,  that 
Morton  gave  all  lectures  in  English  and  turned  out 
good  preachers. 

It  is  recorded  that  on  one  occasion  Morton,  against 
whom  a  '  capias '  was  issued,  went  into  concealment, 
leaving  for  a  short  time,  a  few  of  his  older  students  in 
charge — an  arrangement  which  was  not  in  accordance 
with  what  Mr  Samuel  Wesley  thought  the  circumstances 
required,  and  consequently  that  gentleman  left  '  and  did 
not  feel  under  obligation  to  refund  the  Gale  exhibition 


*  Wilson  s  L»/e  and  Times  of  Defoe,  i.  pp.  31,  33. 
^  Wilson,  ibid. 


62  The  Rise  and  Progress 

of  £io^.  This  is  of  interest,  not  on  account  of  Mr  Samuel 
Wesley's  action,  but  because  it  throws  light  on  the 
plans  of  a  benefactor  of  Dissenters,  Theophilus  Gale, 
M.A.,  the  tutor  of  the  other  academy  at  Newington 
Green  (N.  G,  (i)).  By  his  will  most  of  his  pro- 
perty (his  library,  except  philosophical  books,  went  to 
Harvard)  was  put  in  trust  to  furnish  exhibitions  of  £io 
each  for  students  designed  for  the  ministry.  Gale, 
believing  that  before  long  students  trained  in  academies 
would  be  allowed  to  quaUfy  for  degrees  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  wished  each  exhibitioner  to  enter  his  name 
at  some  college  so  as  to  be  ready  to  go  into  residence 
when  the  subscribed  oaths  were  no  longer  required. 

From  these  accounts  it  will  be  seen  that  under 
Morton  Newington  Green  (2)  was  an  important  academy 
of  the  first  period.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  spite 
of  interruption  owing  to  persecution — seizure  of  goods 
and  danger  of  imprisonment — Morton  did  a  good  work 
until,  in  1685,  he  went  to  New  England.  There  he 
became  pastor  of  a  church,  and  was  chosen  Vice- 
President  of  Harvard  College,  where  he  introduced 
the  systems  of  science  that  he  used  in  England.  This 
suggests  an  interesting  field  for  research ;  for  it  was  not 
through  Morton  alone  that  the  Dissenting  Academies 
influenced  the  education  of  New  England.  After  Mor- 
ton's departure,  three  men,  Lobb,  Wickens  (Emmanuel, 
Cambridge,  an  authority  on  Jewish  and  Oriental  sub- 
jects), and  Glasscock  read  lectures  in  the  academy, 
which  was  discontinued  about  1706.  This  academy  is 
especially  noteworthy  as  exhibiting  two  features.  First, 
instruction  was  given  which  was  beyond  the  grammar 

*  Congregational  Historical  Soc.  Trans.  Vol.  ui.  p.  398. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        63 

school  standard  ;  Defoe  mentions  not  only  the  grammar 
school  subject,  Latin,  but  also  Greek,  Hebrew,  Logic, 
Mathematics  and  Science — that  is  to  say,  the  subjects 
of  the  quadrivium,  university  subjects,  were  taught. 
Secondly,  many  subjects  quite  outside  the  ordinary 
university  course  were  taken,  e.g.  French,  Itahan, 
Geography,  History.  Wesley  moreover  makes  special 
mention  of  mathematical  {y.e.  scientific)  instruments 
so  that  experimental  work,  though  on  a  small  scale, 
was  attempted.  Newington  Green  (2)  was  no  doubt 
as  Wesley  said  '  the  most  considerable  academy,'  and 
it  would  be  quite  wrong  to  suppose  that  advanced  work 
of  this  kind  was  carried  on  elsewhere  ;  but  as  indicating 
the  development  of  academical  teaching  it  is  important. 

Of  the  other  first  period  London  academies  we  have 
not  such  complete  accounts.     Newington  Green  (i), 
famous  on  account  of  having  given  Dr  Watts  part  of 
his  education,  and  Islington  (2)  illustrate  the  necessity 
the  tutors  were  under  of  constantly  seeking  new  quarters 
to  avoid  the  enforcement  of  the  Five  Mile  Act.    Wap- 
ping  (or  Stepney)  and  IsUngton  (i)  died  with  their 
founders.     The  present  school  at  Mill  Hill  rejoices  in  / 
being  able  to  trace — along  somewhat  devious  paths,  / 
it  is  true — its  descent  from  the  academy  set  up  there; 
about  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 

Details  are  lacking  of  the  majority  of  the  academies 
outside  London.  Many  are  merely  names  and  are 
only  casually  referred  to  in  accounts  which  noncon- 
formist historians  give  of  the  ejected  ministers.  There 
were  three,  however,  which  were  really  noteworthy — 
Rathmell,  Sheriffhales  and  Shrewsbury. 

Rathmell,  a  Uttle  village  near  Settle,  Yorkshire, 


64  The  Rise  and  Progress 

has  the  honour  of  being  '  the  oldest  Non-conformist 
seat  of  learning  in  the  north  of  England^.'  It  was 
here  that  Richard  Frankland,  M.A.  (Christ's  College, 
Cambridge),  started  his  famous  academy,  which  was 
carried  on,  in  spite  of  much  persecution  and  many 
removals,  for  nearly  30  years. 

Richard  Frankland  (born  1630)  was  educated  at 
Giggleswick  Grammar  School.  (Rathmell  is,  strictly 
speaking,  a  hamlet  in  the  parish  of  Giggleswick.)  Later, 
he  was  sent  to  Cambridge  where  he  took  B.A.  165 1  and 
M.A.  1655.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  a  living 
at  Bishop  Auckland,  and  when  Cromwell  was  making 
arrangements  for  the  university  which  he  proposed  to 
establish  at  Durham,  Frankland  was  mentioned  in 
connection  with  a  Tutorship^.  Owing  to  the  Restora- 
tion, of  course,  that  College  was  never  started.  In  1661 
Frankland  lost  his  Hving.  After  being  ejected  from 
Bishop  Auckland  he  went  to  Rathmell,  near  his  old 
home,  and  a  httle  later,  acting  upon  the  suggestion 
of  his  friends,  he  began  an  academy  there.  The  first 
pupU  was  George  Liddell,  the  son  of  Frankland's  friend. 
Sir  Thos.  Liddell,  who  entered  March  8th,  1669,  In 
four  years  he  received  15  pupils,  six  of  whom  became 
nonconformist  ministers.  He  then  removed  to  Nat- 
land  near  Kendal,  and  during  the  nine  years  of  his 
stay  there  he  not  only  continued  his  work  as  a  minister 
and  preacher,  but  instructed  yy  students.  Kendal  was 
a  corporate  town,  and  at  length  the  Five  Mile  Act  was 
enforced  and  Frankland  removed  to  Calton-in-Craven 
near  Settle,     Though  some  pupils  went  with  him,  there 

^  Congregational  Historical  Soc.  Trans.  Vol.  ii.  p.  422. 
2  There  seems  to  be  no  evidence  of  his  appointment. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        65 

is  no  doubt  that  this  removal  and  the  three  which 
followed  in  the  next  three  years — first  to  Dawsonfield 
(near  Crosthwaite),  second  to  HuUbarrow  (near  Cart- 
mell  FeU)  and  then  to  Attercliffe — interrupted  his 
work  very  seriously,  and  yet,  in  spite  of  this,  his  fame 
seems  to  have  been  spreading  ;  for,  during  the  period 
1686-1699  no  fewer  than  51  students  were  received. 
After  the  Revolution  and  the  Toleration  Act,  Rathmell 
again  became  the  seat  of  the  academy,  which  con- 
tinued there  till  a  few  months  after  Frankland's  death. 
During  this  last  period  about  142  students  were  trained, 
some  for  the  ministry  (about  one-third  of  the  total 
number  became  ministers)  and  some  for  the  other 
professions.  The  entire  number  of  Frankland's  stu- 
dents is  given  as  303.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this 
was  certainly  the  most  important  academy  in  the 
north  of  England,  and  that  it  reached  so  eminent  a 
position,  in  spite  of  disturbance  which  would  have 
gone  far  to  destroy  many  institutions,  is  a  high  tribute 
to  Frankland  and  his  work. 

In  his  Life  of  Rev.  John  Ashe^,  James  Clegg,  M.D. 
(himself  a  student  under  Frankland,  and  Ashe's 
nephew),  says  that  in  1688  Ashe  went  under  "That 
well-known  tutor  Rev.  Mr  Frankland  who  had  then 
under  his  conduct  the  most  numerous  and  flourishing 
private  academy  in  England  and  who  was  indeed  by 
great  learning,  wisdom  and  an  admirable  temper  excel- 
lently qualified  for  that  Post  and  service ...  I  never 
knew  a  tutor  so  entirely  beloved  by  them  all  nor  one 
that  so  weU  deserved  it.  His  unaffected  gravity, 
sweetened    with    candour,    meekness    and    humility, 

*  Life  of  Rev.  John  Ashe,  p.  53. 
P.  D.  A.  « 


66  The  Rise  and  Progress 

procured  him  that  esteem  and  veneration  even  from  the 
most  Ucentious,  that  made  them  ever  afraid  of  grieving 
or  offending  him.' 

Nor  was  it  the  students  only  who  esteemed  him  ; 
he  won  the  goodwill  of  every  one  who  was  privileged 
to  know  him  and  counted  among  his  friends,  not  only 
many  Dissenters,  but  several  Anglicans  also,  among 
whom  was  Archbishop  Sharp,  a  friend  who  later  ren- 
dered Frankland  good  service.  Frankland  was  one  of 
the  tutors  who  were  persecuted  on  the  pretence  of 
having  broken  the  '  Oxford  Oath^.'  For  centuries 
all  Oxford  and  Cambridge  graduates  had  been  re- 
quired to  swear  that  they  would  not  teach  '  as  in  a 
University '  without  the  sanction  of  the  university 
authorities — an  oath  which  had  remained  long  after 
the  reason  for  it  (the  attempted  new  university  at 
Stamford,  1334)  had  vanished,  and  an  oath  moreover, 
to  which  no  one  attached  any  importance  whatever. 
It  was  used,  however,  as  a  pretext  for  persecuting 
many  tutors  in  dissenting  academies.     On  one  occasion 

*  Every  graduate  swears  : 

(i)  To  keep  and  observe  the  statutes,  privileges,  customs 
and  liberties  of  the  University. 

(2)  You  shall  also  swear  that  in  that  Faculty  to  which  you 
are  now  admitted  Graduate,  you  shall  not  solemnly  perform 
your  readings  as  in  a  University  anywhere  within  this  kingdom 
but  here  in  Oxford  or  in  Cambridge  ;  nor  shall  you  take  degrees, 
as  in  a  University,  in  any  Faculty  whatsoever,  nor  shall  you 
consent  that  any  person  who  hath  taken  his  Degree  elsewhere 
shall  be  admitted  as  a  master  here  in  the  said  Faculty,  to  which 
he  shall  be  elsewhere  admitted. 

(3)  You  shall  also  swear  that  you  wUl  not  read  lectures,  or 
hear  them  read,  at  Stamford,  as  in  a  University  study,  or  college 
general. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        67 

Frankland  was  ordered  to  appear  before  the  bishop's 
court  and  on  his  not  appearing  he  was  excommunicated. 
His  friends,  however,  Lord  Wharton  and  Sir  Thomas 
Rokeby,  took  up  the  matter,  and  as  a  result,  William  III 
ordered  his  absolution  to  be  read  in  Giggleswick  Church. 
Later,  in  1697,  proceedings  against  him,  in  an  eccle- 
siastical court,  were  stopped,  it  is  believed,  by  Arch- 
bishop Sharp's  intervention. 

To  Rathmell,  in  1695,  was  sent  James  Clegg,  who 
writes  thus:  '  I  was  sent  to  Frankland' s  at  Rathmell, 
a  noted  Academy  in  the  North.  He  had  at  that  time 
about  eighty  young  men  (who  boarded  with  him  and 
in  the  town  near  him)  to  whom  he  read  Lectures  with 
the  help  of  an  assistant.'  This  assistant  was  probably 
Mr  Issot,  an  old  pupil ;  there  are  mentioned  also  two 
other  pupils  as  assistants,  Richard  Frankland  the 
younger  and  John  Owen,  but  whether  they  were 
Frankland's  colleagues  is  not  definitely  known — so 
large  a  number  as  80  students,  however,  would  make 
it  imperative  that  there  should  be  at  least  one  other 
tutor. 

Clegg  reproaches  himself  for  not  applying  himself 
more  earnestly  to  his  work  and  for  being  too  ready  to 
read  the  '  light '  English  books  read  by  Frankland's 
daughters.  The  diary  contains  no  account  of  the  work 
done  during  Clegg's  time,  but  in  the  Life  of  Rev.  John 
Ashe  (p.  55),  Clegg  tells  us  of  the  work  his  uncle  did. 
A  rough  time-table,  drawn  up  from  this  account,  is 
given  on  p.  68.  No  doubt  the  work  was  very  similar 
in  Clegg's  own  time. 

In  1698  Clegg  records  '  In  October  the  great  and 
good  old  man  Mr  Frankland  died.     I  saw  him  depart. 

5—2 


68 


The  Rise  and  Progress 


This  was  a  wide  breach ;  now  we  were  left  as  sheep  with- 
out a  shepherd.  Mr  Chorlton  was  desired  to  take  charge 
of  the  academy  but  decUned  it.  Afterwards  others 
were  proposed,  but  none  were  fully  agreed  upon  and 
the  young  men  began  to  drop  away  and  so  that  academy 
fell.' 

After  Frankland's  death,  very  determined  efforts 
were  made  to  continue  the  academy  which  had  been 
doing  such  admirable  work  and  which  was,  of  course, 
a  means  of  supplying  the  pulpits  in  the  north  of 
England.  Ohver  Heywood  several  times  refers  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  any  one  to  fill  Frankland's  post, 
and  at  last,  as  Clegg  says,  the  students  began  to  leave. 
Heywood  gives  a  Hst  of  several  who  went  to  Man- 
chester, and  among  these  was  Clegg  who  records  this 
removal  in  his  diary — '  In  1699,'  he  says,  '  when  I  left 
Rathmell,  I  placed  myself  in  Manchester  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  library  and  the  conversation  of  other  young 


Frankland's  Academy.     (Clegg's  Ashe.) 


7  a.m.   Prayers. 
Breakfast. 


9  (?)      Lectures 


Logic, 

Metaphysics, 
Somatology, 
Pneumatology, 
Natural 
Philosophy. 


Thursdays 


Saturdays, 
5-6 


12  (?)    Dinner. 

Private  reading  or 
Recreation. 

6  p.m.  Prayers. 
Supper. 
Students'  Discussion  in  own  rooms. 


Theses  and  public 
Disputations  ap- 
pointed by  Tutor. 

(before  evening 

prayer)  Analysis, 
i.e.  methodical  and 
critical  dissertation 
on  some  verses  of 
psalm  or  chapter. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        69 

scholars ....  Several  young  men  who  had  been  under 
Mr  Frankland's  tuition  also  came  about  that  time  and 
placed  themselves  under  Mr  Chorlton.' 

With  Frankland's  death,  therefore,  Rathmell  ceased 
to  be  the  seat  of  the  great  Northern  Academy,  but,  as 
Clegg  and  Oliver  Heywood  record,  eleven  of  Frank- 
land's  students  finished  their  course  under  Chorlton 
who  '  set  up  teaching  University  learning  in  a  great 
house  in  Manchester.'  Chorlton's  Academy  is  there- 
fore looked  upon  as  the  successor  to  Rathmell.  As  at 
Newington  Green  (2)  so  at  Rathmell,  the  work  was  of 
university  standard.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
only  a  third  of  the  large  number  of  students  entered 
the  ministry.  There  must  have  been  a  great  demand 
for  the  new  '  realistic  '  instruction  ;  for  Rathmell,  it 
must  be  remembered,  was  but  one  of  22  academies 
known  to  have  been  founded  by  ejected  ministers. 
It  is  true  that  the  majority  were  quite  small,  but  the 
following  accounts  will  show  that  even  in  the  small 
academies  important  work  was  being  done.  A  fairly 
full  account  of  the  academy  at  Sheriffhales  (Shrop- 
shire) under  the  Rev.  John  Woodhouse,  is  given  by 
Toulmin^,  who  obtained  his  information  from  mss. 
lent  to  him  by  Mr  John  Woodhouse  Crompton  of 
Birmingham. 

The  Sheriffhales  Academy  was  in  existence  from 
1663-1697.  Here  the  students  were  trained  for  the 
various  professions,  and,  as  was  usual,  took  a  course 
of  lectures  in  logic,  anatomy,  mathematics,  physics, 
ethics,    and   rhetoric — these    all    the    students    took 

^  Toulmin,  Historical  View  of  the  State  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters 
in  England,  Vol.  ii.  p.  225. 


70  The  Rise  and  Progress 

and  then,  later,  specialised  in  Theology,  Law  or 
Medicine^. 

From  the  records  which  we  have  of  the  method 
employed,  it  would  seem  that  Mr  Woodhouse  was  very 
careful  to  require  thorough  work.  Lectures  were  not 
merely  delivered,  with  no  thought  as  to  whether  they 
were  understood  or  remembered.  Careful  explanation 
was  given  and,  before  a  new  lecture  started,  an  account 
of  the  preceding  one  was  required,  and  the  lectures 
were  '  commonly  committed  to  memory,  at  least  as  to 
the  sense  of  them.' 

Sheriffhales  is  noticeable  as  a  first  period  academy 
in  which  work  outside  the  ordinary  curriculum  was 
done.  Classics,  of  course,  came  first,  and  public 
declensions  and  disputations  had  a  prominent  place 
week  by  week,  and  especially  on  the  great  day  of  the 
year,  when  the  whole  grammar  was  recited  ;   but  this 

*  Arts  Course  at  Sheriffhales. 

Authors  chiefly  studied. 

Mathematics  Galtruchius,  Gassendi,  Gunter,  Leyboum,  Moxon, 
and  Euclid's  Elements. 

Natural  JDe  Carte's  Principia,  De  Stair,  Heereboord,  Magirus, 
Sctcnctf  I  Rhegius,  Robault. 

Logic  Burgedicius    with    Heereboord's    Commentary,    San- 

derson Wallis,  Ramus  and  his  commentator 
Downam  for  private  study. 

Rhetoric  Quintilian,   Radeau,   Vossius. 

Metaphysics  Baronius,  Facchaeus,  Frommenius ;  all  Blank's 
Theses  and  Ward's  Determinationes. 

Ethics  Eustachius,  Heereboord,  More,  Whitby. 

Geography        Euchard. 

History  Puflfendorf. 

Anatomy  Gibson,    Bartoline   and   Blancardi,   Anatomia  Refor- 

mata, 

Hebrew  Bythner's  Grammar  and  his  Lyra  Prophetica. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        71 

was  not  all.  We  are  told  that  '  Practical  exercises 
accompanied  the  course  of  lectures  and  the  students 
were  employed  at  times  in  surveying  land,  composing 
almanacs,  making  sun  dials  of  different  constructions, 
and  dissecting  animals  ' — this  reminds  one  of  Milton's 
recommendations.  But  even  more  important  than 
these  practical  exercises  is  a  statement  to  the  effect 
that  the  students  were  in  the  habit  of  writing  English 
compositions  in  the  form  of  letters  and  speeches, 
'  And,'  continues  the  writer,  '  students  designed  for 
the  ministry  drew  up  skeletons  or  heads  of  sermons, 
schemes  of  prayer,  etc.,  and  set  psalms  to  two  or  three 
tunes  (metres  ?).'  Whether  the  writing  of  English 
composition  may  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  the 
sermon-writing  required  in  the  divinity  course  is  not 
known  ;  but  the  hypothesis  seems  probable,  and  if 
there  were  casual  connection  between  the  two,  it  is 
not  unhkely  that  the  adoption,  in  the  other  academies, 
of  English  in  the  lectures  (long  before  it  was  adopted 
in  Oxford  or  Cambridge)  and  later,  of  English  as  a 
subject  in  itself,  is  due  to  the  same  cause. 

Sheriffhales  did  not  become  so  large  as  Rathmell, 
but  there  is  evidence  of  there  having  been  40  students 
in  residence  at  one  time,  and  this  accounts  for  the  fact 
of  the  names  of  two  ministers,  Southwell  and  Beresford 
being  given  (but  in  sources  other  than  the  MSS.)  as  those 
of  Woodhouse's  assistants,  though  whether  they  really 
did  occupy  that  position  is  not  certain. 

Among  the  students  were  several  ministers  and 
lawyers,  and  also  some  who  filled,  if  not  better,  yet 
more  public  positions.  Among  these  were  Robert 
Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Henry  St  John,  Viscount 


72  The  Rise  and  Progress 

Bolingbroke.  It  was  these  men  who  afterwards,  in 
1714,  supported  the  Schism  Bill  which  enacted  that 
'  no  person  should  keep  any  public  or  private  school 
or  teach  or  instruct  unless  he  conforms  to  the  Estab- 
lished Church.'  The  bill,  it  will  be  remembered,  passed 
the  Commons  with  a  large  majority — owing  largely  to 
the  strenuous  endeavours  of  Harley.  In  the  Lords, 
however,  it  was  vigorously  opposed,  and  in  a  strong 
speech  Lord  Wharton,  ever  ready  to  uphold  Non- 
conformists, reproached  Harley,  saying '  Such  a  measure 
was  but  an  indifferent  return  for  the  benefit  which  the 
pubUc  had  received  from  these  schools  in  which  the 
greatest  men  had  been  educated — men  who  had  made 
a  glorious  peace  for  England,  who  had  paid  the  debts 
of  the  nation,  and  who  had  extended  its  commerce.' 
Such  is  the  testimony  of  a  contemporary  who  was  well 
qualified  (since  he  was  acquainted  with  many  tutors 
and  schools)  to  speak  of  the  work  of  the  academies. 

But  before  this,  the  academy  at  Sheriffhales  had 
ceased  to  exist — owing,  it  is  thought,  to  ill-health, 
Woodhouse  had  to  leave  Shropshire  for  London,  and 
in  consequence,  in  1697,  the  academy  was  closed. 

Two  years  later,  however,  another  academy  in  the 
same  county  was  becoming  important. 

The  chief  source  of  information  about  this  academy, 
which  was  situated  at  Shrewsbury,  is  the  ms.  in 
Dr  Williams's  Library.  Soon  after  the  ejection,  an 
academy  was  started  in  Shrewsbury  by  Francis  TaUents, 
M.A.  (Cambridge)  Fellow  and  then  Vice-President  of 
Magdalen  College,  who,  in  1642,  was  in  France  as  tutor 
to  the  Earl  of  Suffolk's  sons.  TaUents  ministered  to 
the  Nonconformists  in  Shrewsbmry,  as  also  did  Bryan, 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        73 

and  the  two  were  associated  in  academical  teaching. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  academy  came  under 
the  control  of  James  Owen  in  1699,  that  it  became  very 
strong.  Owen  had  started  an  academy  in  Oswestry 
about  1660.  He  was,  according  to  the  MS.  '  versed  in 
many  languages  ancient  and  modern,  but  his  greatest 
skill  was  in  history,  especially  ecclesiastical.'  The 
account  also  says  '  As  to  polemical  Divinity,  he  was  a 
champion.'  No  doubt  Owen's  powers  in  this  direction 
would  have  some  influence  on  the  pupils  and  though 
there  is  no  mention  of  English  as  a  subject,  it  may  be 
conjectured  that,  as  in  other  academies,  it  was  given 
some  slight  notice.  The  following  list  of  authors  read 
at  Shrewsbury  is  taken  from  the  MS.  (Dr  Williams's 
Library)  : 


Logic 

Metaphysics 
Philosophy 
Geometry 
Astronomy 
Chronology 
Ecclesiastical) 
History       \ 
Theology.  . 


Burgersdicius,  Heereboord,  Ramus. 

Frommenius,  Eustachius,  Baronius. 

Le  Clerc,  Du  Hamel. 

EucUd,  Pardie  {??). 

Gassendius. 

Strauchius. 


Spanheim, 
Wollebius,  Byssemus. 

Among  the  list  of  students  at  Shrewsbury  during 
Owen's  time  are  the  names  of  two  who  afterwards 
occupied  important  positions  as  tutors — Perrot  of 
Carmarthen  17 15-1733  and  Samuel  Jones  of  Tewkes- 
bury. 

James  Owen  died  1706  and  his  place  was  filled  by 
Samuel  Benion,  M.D.,  who,  after  1691,  was  with 
Philip  Henry  at  Broad  Oak.  Here  Benion  seems  to 
have  taught  some  youths  boarding  with  Henry  and 


74  The  Rise  and  Progress 

to  have  received  instruction  from  him  in  '  Academical 
Knowledge  '  and  in  theological  studies.  It  is  recorded 
of  Benion  that  at  Shrewsbury  '  he  hit  upon  a  better 
plan  of  education  than  his  predecessors.  He  drew  up 
several  schemes  of  sciences,  logic,  pneumatology,  natural 
philosophy,  ethics  ' — but  here  the  manuscript  stops, 
leaving  us  ignorant  of  the  exact  nature  of  the  changes. 

The  academy  continued  under  Reynolds  and  Giles 
until  about  1708,  when  many  of  the  students  left,  to 
attend  either  Jones'  Academy  at  Tewkesbury  or 
Latham's  at  Findem,  which  were  then  growing  and 
becoming  more  important. 

Such,  then  were  the  academies  of  the  first  period. 
As  we  have  seen,  they  resembled  the  grammar  schools  ; 
but  the  best  of  them  worked  more  and  more  on  uni- 
versity lines.  There  is  no  doubt  that  classics  had  the 
chief  place  in  the  curriculum,  then  came  logic,  rhetoric, 
mathematics,  theology  and  law — in  these  subjects 
lectures  were  read  by  the  tutor.  The  lectures  seem 
to  have  been  designed  to  throw  Ught  upon  the  text- 
book— that  is,  the  text-book  was  the  basis  of  the 
lectures,  which  were  not  given  independently  of  any 
one  book.  Before  a  new  lecture,  questions  were  often 
asked  to  ascertain  what  the  students  remembered  of  the 
previous  one,  and  after  the  lecture  they  were  allowed 
to  ask  for  further  explanations  if  necessary.  Besides 
the  set  text-books  there  were  books  recommended  for 
private  reading.  The  text-books  were  those  ordinarily 
used  by  university  students.  Henry  Fleming,  an 
undergraduate  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  who  went 
up  in  1678,  read  the  same  books  that  were  used  at 
Sheriffhales   and   Shrewsbury.     In   logic,    Brerewood, 


of  the  Dissenting  Acade^nies        75 

Sanderson  and  Burgersdicius,  in  ethics,  Eustachius, 
Brerewood^.  An  interesting  difference  is  that  both  the 
Sheriffhales  and  the  Shrewsbury  Hst  mention  the  logic 
by  Ramus — this,  apparently,  was  not  known  to  Fleming. 
As  a  rule  in  the  early  academies  there  were  no  lectures 
in  Geography,  History,  Natural  philosophy,  Anatomy, 
Ethics,  and  Metaphysics ;  books  on  these  subjects  were 
read  privately  and  occasionally  the  students'  work  was 
'  heard.'  The  only  one  of  these  subjects  which  seems 
to  have  interested  Henry  Fleming  was  Geography  ; 
his  letters  to  his  father  contain  requests  for  a  geography 
book  and  his  accounts  show  he  possessed  one  and  an 
atlas,  but  there  is  strong  reason  for  thinking  that  this 
was  an  interest  outside  his  university  course  and  akin 
to  the  half-amused  interest  which  his  father  and  his 
tutor  took  in  the  early  beginnings  of  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  or  the  '  knick-knackery  '  as  it  was  called. 

The  above  account  of  academy  work  would  in  all 
probability  apply  to  all  the  academies  of  the  first 
period — that  is  to  say  if  details  of  the  work  in  all  of 
them  were  available  it  would  be  unlikely  that  one  would 
be  found  doing  less  than  this  ;  there  were,  however, 
some  in  which,  as  has  been  seen,  even  more  advanced 
work  was  taken — English  essays,  at  Sheriffhales ; 
modem  languages,  at  Newington  Green ;  practical 
exercises  in  science,  at  both  these  places  ;  such  work, 
however,  in  the  first  period  was  exceptional ;  it  was 
not  until  the  later  years  of  the  second  period  that  the 
majority  of  the  academies  undertook  it. 

The  second  period  academies  (1691-1750)  were 
more  '  public  '  than  the  early  ones.     In  some  cases 

*  See  The  Flemings  in  Oxford,  Vol.  I.  pp.  250-255,  321. 


76  The  Rise  and  Progress 

they  had  been  private  academies  which,  after  the  death 
of  the  founder  or  the  early  tutors,  were  controlled  by  a 
group  of  ministers  who  had  the  appointment  of  the 
tutor  in  their  hands — the  appointment  of  P.  Doddridge 
as  the  successor  of  Jennings  of  Kibworth  is  a  case  in 
point ;  in  other  cases  they  were  founded  as  the  result 
of  the  efforts  of  leading  Dissenters  and  were  supported 
by  the  churches,  by  ministers'  societies  or  by  such 
funds  as  that  of  the  London  Congregational  Fund 
Board  (1695).  They  were  therefore  not  the  property 
of  the  tutor  (as  those  started  by  the  ejected  ministers 
had  been)  and  were  under  some  measure  of  '  public ' 
control.  These  academies  differ  chiefly  from  those  of 
the  first  period  just  described  in  being  not  only  more 
'  public  '  but  also  in  having  several  tutors  each  of  whom 
was  a  specialist  in  his  subject,  with  the  result  that  one 
academy  became  the  resort  of  those  reading  theology, 
another,  of  those  reading  mathematics,  and  a  third  of 
those  requiring  science,  and  so,  as  in  the  earlier  days, 
students  travelled  from  academy  to  academy^.  More- 
over, the  academies  of  this  period,  while  teaching 
university  subjects  and  employing  university  methods, 
yet  became  more  and  more  modern.  Classics  still 
remained  important,  but  Latin  had  to  be  spoken  only 
at  certain  times  and  in  certain  places.  Before  the  end 
of  this  period  all  lectures  were,  not  as  formerly,  in 
Latin,  but  in  English.  English  exercises  and  essays 
were  required  and  even  English  books,  e.g.  Bacon's 
Essays  at  Kibworth,  were  read  ;  that  is  to  say,  English 

1  Seeker  went  from  Attercliffe  to  Tewkesbury  (probably  for 
Theology)  and  thence  to  London  (No.  22,  period  II)  to  study  Science 
under  J.  Eames,  F.R.S. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        77 

was  read  as  literature — not  because  it  was  a  vehicle  of 
information.  The  second  period  academies  are  of  great 
interest  seeing  that  they  illustrate  very  clearly  on  the 
one  hand  the  growing  demand  for  a '  realistic  education  ' 
and  on  the  other  hand  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
academies  to  adapt  their  work  to  the  needs  of  the  day. 
Thirty-four  academies  are  grouped  in  the  second  period  ; 
among  them  are  several  which  have  been  continued  as 
theological  training  colleges — Attercliffe  is  connected 
through  the  old  Rotherham  College  with  the  present 
Yorkshire  United  College,  Bradford — Idle  and  Heck- 
mondwyke  are  also  connected  with  the  same  institution  : 
practically  no  records  were  kept  of  the  actual  teaching 
in  the  majority  of  the  academies  ;  but  we  are  fortunate 
in  having  a  full  account  from  various  sources  of  the  work 
of  Northampton  Academy,  which  from  the  influence  it 
exerted  was  by  far  the  most  important  in  this  period. 
Under  the  Rev.  Philip  Doddridge,  D.D.,  the  academy 
at  Northampton  became  one  of  the  most  famous  in 
the  country.  It  was  in  reality  a  continuation  of  an 
academy  to  which  Doddridge  himself  had  gone  in 
1719  when  a  youth  of  seventeen,  and  which  was  started 
at  Kib worth  in  Leicestershire  about  17 15  by  the 
Rev.  John  Jennings. 

In  a  letter^  (dated  1728)  to  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Saunders,  Doddridge  gives  a  very  full  account  of  his 
education  under  Jennings.  The  course,  so  far  as 
classics  and  theology  are  concerned,  is  similar  to  that 
in  the  academies  of  the  first  period,  but  far  more  time 
was  given  to  modern  subjects.     Doddridge  writes  '  Our 

^  Correspondence  and  diary  of  P.  Doddridge  (ed.  by  Humphreys), 
Vol.  II.  p.  462. 


j8  The  Rise  and  Progress 

course  of  education  at  Kibworth  was  the  employment 
of  four  years  and  every  half  year  we  entered  upon  a 
new  set  of  studies  or  at  least  changed  the  time  and 
order  of  our  lectures.'  The  first  half  year's  work  was 
as  follows — '  Geometry  and  algebra,  three  times  a  week 
\i.e.  the  work  of  the  '  quadrivium '  was  started],  Hebrew 
twice,  Geography,  French,  Latin  prose  authors  and 
classical  exercises  once  a  week.'  Boyer's  French 
Grammar  was  used  and  there  was  some  reading  of 
phrases  and  dialogues  '  without  regarding  the  pro- 
nunciation with  which  Mr  Jennings  was  not  acquainted.' 
It  will  be  noticed  that  a  lecture  period  was  given  to 
geography.  '  The  lecture,'  writes  Doddridge,  '  was 
only  an  examination  of  the  account  we  could  give  of 
the  most  remarkable  passages  '  of  Gordon's  Geography  ; 
this  comment  also  applies  to  history  taken  in  the  second 
half  year.  Reference  to  the  full  course^  will  show  not 
only  when  the  usual  subjects  such  as  Divinity,  Jewish 
Antiquities,  Ecclesiastical  history,  Pneumatology,  etc. 
were  taken,  but  also  that  science,  mechanics,  hydro- 
statics, physics,  anatomy,  and  astronomy  had  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  time-table ;  that  English  essays, 
with  Bacon,  Addison  and  Steele  as  models,  were 
regularly  written ;  and  that  in  the  oratory  class 
'  English  orations  were  the  most  common  and  turned, 
I  believe,  to  the  best  account.' 

After  giving  all  the  work  and  the  text-books  used 
Doddridge  gives  some  information  about  the  general 
administration  of  the  academy.  All  the  students  were 
examined  before  admission  and  were  expected  to  have 
done  some  Latin.     The  students  had  always  to  converse 

*  See  Appendix  No.  II. 


i    s. 

d. 

8  lo 

o 

4 

3 

2 

6 

3 

8 

of  the  Dissenting  Academies        79 

in  Latin  at  certain  times  and  in  certain  places  ;  the 
scriptures  were  read  '  in  the  family  '  (j,.e.,  when  they 
all  assembled  for  prayers)  from  Hebrew,  Greek,  or 
French  into  English.  Mr  Jennings  allowed  the  students 
to  use  his  library.  In  summer  they  rose  at  6.30,  in 
winter  at  7.30  ;  they  had  a  fortnight's  vacation  at 
Christmas  and  six  weeks  at  Whitsuntide.  An  idea  of 
the  fees  will  be  gained  from  Doddridge's  bill  at  Christ- 
mas, 1720  : 

Half  year's  board  and  tuition     . . 

King's  '  Inquiry  '  

Appendix  to  Logic         

Interleaved  New  Testament 

;f9     o     5 

In  1722  the  academy  removed  to  Hinkley.  Mr 
Jennings  died  in  1723,  and  it  was  some  time  before 
a  successor  was  appointed.  At  last,  at  a  general 
meeting  of  Nonconformist  ministers,  held  at  Lutter- 
worth, April  1729,  it  was  suggested  that  the  academy 
should  be  established  at  Harborough  ^  and  Dr  Doddridge 
began  his  work  there  in  the  following  June  2.  Before 
his  appointment,  Doddridge  had  some  correspondence 
on  the  matter  with  several  ministers,  among  whom 
was  Dr  Isaac  Watts,  whose  letters  throw  light  on  the 
work  and  position  of  academies  in  those  days.  For 
example,  in  one  of  his  letters  Watts  says  *  You  will 
have  many  lads  coming  from  the  Grammar  Schools, 
and  as  many  such  scholars  will  not  be  fit  to  enter  upon 
your  academical  course  with  proper  advantage,  should 

^  The  removal  to  Northampton  was  made  in  the  same  year — 1729. 
2  This  shows  the  more  '  pubUc  *  character  of  the  Ilnd  period 
academies. 


8o  The  Rise  and  Progress 

not  the  perfection  of  the  studies  of  grammar,  algebra 
and  geometry  be  the  business  of  your  first  half  year^  ?  " 
Doddridge  rephes  '  I  propose  that  the  perfection  of 
these  studies  should  be  the  employment  of  the  first 
year.'  Again,  Dr  Watts  says  '  Are  the  hands  of  the 
enemies  effectually  chained  up  from  offering  us  any 
violence,  that  they  cannot  indict  or  persecute  you  under 
the  pretence  that  your  academy  is  a  school  ? '  Dodd- 
ridge rephes  *  I  know  not  how  it  may  be  in  other 
places,  but  about  us  I  cannot  discern  so  much  fury 
in  the  clergy  ;  nor  do  I  imagine  they  could  make 
anything  of  a  prosecution.  It  was  once  attempted, 
to  the  shame  of  the  undertakers,  with  regard  to 
Mr  Matchens  of  Mount  Sorrel  2.' 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  clergy  did  attempt 
a  prosecution.  No  sooner  had  the  academy  begun  to 
thrive  than  attempts  were  made  to  injure  it.  The 
Archdeacon  of  Northampton,  Dr  Reynolds,  ordered 
the  wardens  of  All  Saints  to  '  present '  the  '  fellow  in 
the  parish  who  taught  a  Grammar  School '  unless  he 
held  a  proper  licence  from  the  Bishop.  The  citation 
is  still  preserved  and  is  given  in  the  History  of  Castle 
Hill  Church^.     It  is  worth  giving  in  full. 

To  Philip  Dotteridge  of  the  Parish  of  All  Saints,  in  the  ToAvn 
of  Northampton,  in  the  Gjunty  of  Northampton,  Gentle- 
man. 

By  virtue  of  a  Citation  under  seal  herewith  shewn  unto  you 
I  cite  you  to  appear  personally  before  the  Reverend  George 
Reynolds  Doctor  of  laws  Vicar  General  Commissary  General 

^  Diary  and  Correspondence  of  P.  Doddridge  (ed.  Humphreys), 
Vol.  II.  p.  478  et  seq. 

*  Ibid.  Vol.  II.  p.  481.  »  p.  21. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        8 1 

axid  Official  Principal  in  spiritual  matters  of  the  Right  Reverend 
father  in  God  Robert  by  Divine  Permission  Lord  Bishop  of 
Peterborough  and  also  official  of  the  Reverend  the  Archdeacon 
of  the  Archdeaconry  of  Northampton  or  his  lawful!  Surrogate 
or  some  other  competent  Judge  in  this  behalf e  in  the  Con- 
sistory Court  adjoyning  to  the  Parish  Church  of  All  Saints  in 
the  same  town  of  Northampton  on  Tuesday  the  sixth  day  of 
November  1733  at  the  usual  time  of  hearing  causes  there  then 
and  there  to  answer  to  certain  Articles  or  Interrogations  to  be 
objected  and  administered  to  you  concerning  your  soul's  health 
and  the  Reformation  and  correction  of  your  manners  and  excess. 
And  especially  your  teaching  and  instructing  youth  in  the 
Liberal  Arts  and  Sciences  not  being  licensed  thereto  by  the 
Ordinary  of  the  Diocese  touching  either  your  Learning  and 
Dexterity  in  teaching  or  your  right  understanding  of  God's 
true  religion  or  your  honest  and  sober  conversation  at  the 
promotion  of  and  pursuant  to  a  certain  Detection  or  present 
ment  exhibited  against  you  by  Thomas  Rand  and  Benjamin 
Chapman,  Churchwardens  of  the  said  parish  of  All  Saints 
in  the  said  town  of  Northampton.  And  farther  to  do  and 
receive  according  to  Law — Justice. 

W.  M.  Spencer. 

*  Doddridge  was  promised  a  licence  if  he  would 
apply,  but  fortified  with  the  assistance  of  the  London 
Committee  of  Protestant  Dissenters  he  refused.' 

Doddridge  appealed  against  the  Citation  and  finally, 
nearly  a  year  afterwards,  the  whole  proceedings  were 
stopped  by  a  message  from  George  II,  who  insisted 
'  that  in  his  reign  there  should  be  no  persecution  for 
conscience'  sake^.' 

Doddridge  began  with  only  three  pupils  intended 
for  the  ministry  and  says  of  them  '  they  had  made  a 
very  considerable  progress,  both  in  Latin  and  Greek  ; 
indeed,  far  beyond  what  many  others  have  done  who 

^  History  of  Castle  Hill  Church,  pp.  21  and  22. 

P.  D.  A.  6 


82  The  Rise  and  Progress 

have  just  left  a  Grammar  School.'     In  1732,  David 
Jennings  wrote  to  Doddridge,  strongly  advising  him 
to  change  his  intention  of  taking  only  students  who 
meant  to  be  ministers.     Jennings  thought  it  a  mistake 
to  compel  Dissenters  to  send  their  sons  who  were  to 
be   physicians,    lawyers   or   gentlemen   to   Oxford   or 
Cambridge,  or  '  to  make  them  rakes  in  foreign  uni- 
versities.'    Doddridge  needed  no  second  advice,  but  at 
once  threw  open  his  academy  to  boys  preparmg  for 
the  various  professions,  and  consequently  his  numbers 
increased.     The    average    number    in    residence    was, 
probably,  between  30  and  50.    In  1730  there  were  about 
40  ;    in  1743  63  signed  the  niles  Doddridge  drew  up ; 
in  1747  there  were  only  29.      A  letter^  to  the  Rev. 
John  Barker,  who  had  written  about  a  poor  youth  of 
exceptional  promise,  shows  Doddridge  ready  to  take 
the  boy,  though  he  does  not  generally  take  boys  who 
have  not  been  through  a  grammar  school  and  acquired 
a  good  knowledge  of  classics.     The  fees  were  £t6  per 
annum,  for  board  (students  dependent  on  charity  funds, 
i.e.,  collections  from  churches,  paid  £1^  per  annum  for 
board)   and  £4  for  tuition.     When  pupils  enter  the 
academy,  says  Doddridge,   '  they  pay  a  guinea  each 
for  a  closet  and  bring  a  pair  of  sheets.     They  find  their 
own  candles  and  put  out  their  washing.'     A  comparison 
between  these  terms  at  Northampton  and  Doddridge's 
Kibworth  bill  given  above  (p.  79)  with  the  following 
sent  home  by  Pitt,   Earl  of  Chatham,   who  was  at 
Oxford  during  the  same  period,  serves  to  illustrate  the 


^  Correspondence  and  Diary  of  P.  Doddridge  (ed.  Humphreys), 
Vol,  III.  p.  206. 


of  the  Dissenting  Acadefnies        83 


enormous  expense  which  was  avoided  by  sending  youths 
to  an  academy. 

Trinity  College, 

January  ye  20th,  1726/7. 
HoND.  Sir. 

After  such  delay,  tho'  not  owing  to  any  negligence  on 
my  part,  I  am  ashamed  to  send  you  ye  following  accompt 
without  first  making  great  apologies  for  not  executing  your 
commands  sooner. 


£ 

s. 

d. 

Matriculation  Fees 

16 

6 

Caution  Money 

10 

0 

0 

Benefaction 

.    10 

0 

0 

Utensils  for  ye  Coll.  . . 

2 

0 

0 

Common  Room 

2 

0 

0 

Coll. -servants'  fees 

I 

15 

0 

Poddesway  gown  &  cap 

8 

12 

0 

Tea  table  china  ware,  etc. 

6 

5 

0 

Glasses  . . 

II 

0 

Thirds  of  chamber  &  furniture 

.      41 

7 

8 

Teaspoons 

I 

7 

6 

Summe  total  84  14     8 

Balance  paid  me  by  Mr  Stockwell  15  05  4 
I  have  too  much  reason  to  fear  you  may  think  some 
of  these  articles  too  extravagant,  as  they  really  are,  but  all  I 
have  to  say  for  it  is,  humbly  to  beg  you  would  not  attribute 
it  to  my  extravagance  but  to  ye  custom  of  this  place,  where  we 
pay   for  most  things  too  at  a  high  rate... and  am  with   all 

possible  respect 

Sr.  Yr.  most  dutyfuU  son 

Wm.  Pitt. 

Moreover,  three  months  later,  April  loth^,  Pitt  sent 
home  another  bill  for  £47.  $s.  od.  which  includes  the 
following   items :     '  Three   months'    learning    French 

*  Chatham,  Rosebery,  p.  34. 

6—2 


84  The  Rise  and  Progress 

£2.  2s.  od. ;  for  a  course  of  experimental  philosophy 
£2.  2s.  od. '  and  at  Northampton  the  terms  were  £4  for 
tuition  per  annum — ^with  French  and  experimental 
philosophy  included  !  It  is  not  surprising  in  view  of 
these  facts  that  '  it  frequently  happened  that  the 
clergy  and  lay  members  of  the  National  Church  to 
whom  the  expense  of  the  University  was  an  object  of 
difficulty  availed  themselves  of  these  academies  with 
advantage  and  without  any  fear  that  an  undue  influence 
would  be  exercised  upon  the  minds  of  the  children*.' 
A  letter  which  Dr  Doddridge  received  from  Lord 
Kilkerran  (Sir  James  Fergusson)  in  1743  gives  another 
reason  for  the  growing  popularity  of  the  academies. 
Lord  Kilkerran  says  '  the  education  of  my  children  in 
a  right  way  is  what  I  have  much  at  heart  and  that 
I  foresee  many  dangers  in  sending  them  to  the  Uni- 
versity, I  have  been  of  opinion  that  the  better  way  is 
to  send  them  to  an  academy  under  virtuous  people.' 

From  the  first,  discipline  in  the  academies  had 
received  the  careful  attention  of  the  tutors  and  reference 
is  often  found  to  regulations  framed  to  secure  good  order 
and  strict  attention  to  work.  Probably  the  most 
detailed  rules  for  an  academy  were  drawn  up  by 
Doddridge  in  1643  2.  There  were  several  sections  deal- 
ing with  such  matters  as  '  Attendance  on  Family 
Prayer  and  Lectures  at  appointed  times  '  ;  '  Of  shutting 
up  the  gate  and  retiring  to  bed  '  ;  '  Of  the  Hours,  Place 
and  Order  of  Meals,'  There  is  a  section  containing 
the  usual  Library  rules  and  one  with  regulations  for 

^  Quoted  from  J.  D.  Humphreys,  editor  of  the  Diary  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Dr  Doddridge,  Vol.  i.  p.  31. 

*  A  History  oj  Castle  Hill  Church,  Northampton,  contains  a  copy 
of  the  original  manuscript  book  now  at  New  College,  London. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        85 

'  Conduct  when  Abroad,'  i.e.  when  outside  the  academy. 
A  selection  of  these  rules  is  given  in  Appendix  No.  III. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  here  is  Section  II,  No.  3, 
which  requires  every  student  to  be  ready  for  lecture 
within  five  minutes  of  the  hour  fixed  or  to  forfeit 
twopence  ;    this  rule  was  meant  to  be  obeyed,  for  in 
the  section  dealing  with  the  duties  of  the  office  of  the 
monitor  we  find  that  he  had  to  call  over  the  roll  not 
only  before  morning  and  evening  prayer  but  also  before 
'  all  lectures  appointed  for  the  whole  academy  together 
and  if  he  fail  to  do  it — ^he  is  to  forfeit  sixpence  for 
every  such  failure.'     The  usual  fines  were  required  for 
being  '  Gated  '  and  a  further  regulation  reads  '  when 
the   small   pecuniary  fines  here   appointed   evidently 
appear  to  be  despised,  they  will  be  exchanged  for  some 
extraordinary  exercises,  which,  if  they   are  not   per- 
formed, must  occasion  complaint  to  the  friends  of  the 
student  in  question  ;   for  the  intent  of  these  laws  is  not 
to  enrich  the  box  at  the  expense  of  those  who  are 
determined  to  continue  irregular  but  to  prevent  any 
from  being  so.'     A  rule  requiring  tradesmen's  bills  to 
be  delivered  to  the  Tutor  twice  a  year  when  all  accounts 
had  to  be  settled  would  probably  do  much  to  prevent 
the  extravagant  running  up  of  bills  which  was  so  often 
a  source  of  trouble  to  parents  whose  sons  were  at 
Oxford    or    Cambridge.      The    section    dealing    with 
'  Academical  studies  '  will  be  better  taken  when  the 
course   of   instruction   is   under   consideration.     That 
claims  attention  now. 

The    time-table   and   course    of   lectures   may   be 
tabulated  as  follows  : 


86 


The  Rise  and  Progress 


Northampton  Academy  Time-table. 

a.m. 

p.m. 

6.       Rise 

2.           Dinner. 

6.IO.  Roll-call  and  prayers. 

7.            Evening  prayers. 

Private 

reading. 

'Tutorials'  or  "coach- 
ing "  in  languages. 

8,        Family  Prayer. 

before  9.  Supper. 

Breakfast. 

10.          Gate  locked. 

IO-2  p.m.  Lectures. 

10.30.     Students  in  their  own 

rooms. 

Lectures  from 

;  10  a.m. — 2  p.m. 

First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year          Fourth  Year 

Logic 

Trigonometry 

Natural)       .              Civil  Law 
Civil      /             ^     Mythology 

Rhetoric 

Conic  Sections 

Geography 

Celestial 

Anatomy                     and  Hiero- 

Metaphysics 

Mechanics 

Jewish  Antiquities     glyphics 

Geometry 

Natural     and 

Divinity                     English  Hist. 

Algebra 

Experimental 

Orations                    Hist,  of  Non- 

Philosophy 

conformity 

Divinity 

Divinity 

Orations 

Preaching 
Pastoral 
Care,  etc. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  year  Logic  and 
Rhetoric,  the  two  subjects  of  the  trivium,  ignored  in 
the  grammar  schools,  were  taken  together  with  the 
'  first  steps  '  in  the  quadrivium — Geography,  Geometry 
and  Algebra.  The  second  year's  work  was  devoted 
mainly  to  the  quadrivium,  and  from  Orton's  Life  of 
Doddridge  we  learn  that  the  system  of  natural  and 
experimental  philosophy  (comprehending  mechanics, 
statics,  hydrostatics,  optics,  pneumatology,  and  as- 
tronomy) was  read  '  with  reference  to  the  best  authors 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        87 

on  these  subjects  and  was  illustrated  by  a  neat  and 
pretty  large  philosophical  apparatus.'  This  natural 
and  experimental  philosophy  did  not  contain  anything 
very  advanced,  and  the  method  was  probably  either 
that  the  tutor  read  to  the  students  his  own  '  system  ' 
(lectures)  consisting  of  information  gleaned  from  such 
books  as  then  existed  on  the  subject,  or  that  the 
students  read  the  chief  books,  and  the  lecture  consisted 
in  '  hearing  '  their  account  of  the  chief  parts.  But 
though  the  lectures  were  no  doubt  superficial,  yet  the 
fact,  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  is  that  such  subjects 
were  taken  and  that  an  attempt,  however  crude,  was 
made  to  take  them  experimentally.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  years  history  has  a  notable  place  and  more  time 
was  given  to  specialisation  ;  naturally  the  students 
wishing  to  qualify  as  lawyers  or  doctors  would  not  be 
required  to  attend  lectures  on  Divinity  and  Preaching  ; 
for  them  special  lectures  were  given  in  required  subjects 
so  as  to  fit  them  to  take  up  more  advanced  reading  in 
such  institutions  as  were  specially  concerned  with  the 
training  for  the  medical  and  legal  professions.  The 
arrangement  of  the  course  is  quite  on  university  lines 
and  quite  in  accordance  with  the  suggestion  of  Milton 
who,  it  will  be  remembered,  considered  that  at  an 
academy  a  good  general  and  useful  education  should 
be  given  in  all  subjects  and  that  highly  specialised 
work  was  to  be  taken  in  separate  institutions. 

One  important  omission  from  the  time-table  claims 
our  attention.  Languages  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence — except  that  there  were  evening  tutorials 
in  languages,  and  that  at  prayers  the  students  read 
the  Bible  from  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  or  French  into 


88  The  Rise  and  Progress 

English.  This  seems  to  suggest  that  languages  were 
neglected  ;  in  fact  Priestley,  who  went  as  a  student  to 
the  academy  the  year  after  Doddridge's  death,  1751 
(when  probably  Doddridge's  methods  were  continued), 
speaks  of  getting  up  early  to  do  Greek  with  another 
student,  and  adds  '  These  voluntary  engagements  were 
the  more  necessary  in  the  course  of  our  academical 
studies  as  there  was  then  no  provision  made  for  teach- 
ing the  learned  languages.  We  had  even  no  com- 
positions or  orations  in  Latin^.'  Doddridge  was  evi- 
dently no  Ciceronian,  but  there  is  considerable  evidence 
to  show  that  languages  were  not  ignored.  In  1750, 
Dr  Doddridge  wrote  that  he  hoped  to  have  a  third 
tutor  '  who,  while  I  am  employed  in  theological  studies, 
and  Mr  Clark  in  philosophy,  might  teach  the  languages 
not  only  to  academical  pupils  but  also  to  some  lads 
who  are  forming  their  first  acquaintance  with  them,  or 
who. .  .are  not  of  an  age,  standing  or  attainments  to 
be  ranked  with  any  of  our  classes.'  This  suggests  that 
Doddridge  was,  at  this  time,  not  requiring  from  students 
on  entrance  even  a  good  grounding  in  Latin  and  Greek, 
and  it  suggests,  too,  either  (i)  that  he  was  taking  in 
younger  boys  than  he  did  at  first — taking  them  before 
they  had  really  finished  at  the  grammar  school  or 
(2)  if  they  were  boys  of  the  usual  age,  16  or  17,  that 
they  were  not  so  well  prepared  by  the  grammar  school 
as  they  had  been  10  or  11  years  before.  But  from 
a  statement  by  Bogue  and  Bennett  2  it  seems  that 
Doddridge  from  the  first  gave  help  to  backward 
students  after  evening  prayers  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 

^  lAfe  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley,  Rutt,  ii.  p.  26. 
*  History  of  Dissenters,  Vol.  11.  p.  334. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        89 

Hebrew,  so  that  he  was  really  engaging  a  third  tutor 
not  to  do  new  work  but  to  relieve  him  of  work  which 
had  always  had  a  place  on  the  time-table.  Indeed,  in 
the  rules  drawn  up  by  Doddridge  (see  Appendix  No.  Ill) 
No.  10  in  Section  I  dealing  with  academical  studies 
provides  for  definite  '  private  '  reading  in  classics  for 
aU  students.  The  rule  is  '  four  classics,  viz.  one  Greek 
and  one  Latin  poet  and  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  prose 
writer,  as  appointed  by  the  tutor,  are  to  be  read  by 
each  student  in  his  study  and  observations  are  to  be 
written  upon  them  to  be  kept  in  a  distinct  book,  and 
communicated  to  the  tutor  whenever  he  shall  think 
fit.'  This  provision  and  the  fact  that  language  classes 
were  of  the  nature  of  '  tutorials  ' — coaching  students 
with  special  needs — indicate  that  Doddridge  in  the  true 
realistic  spirit  condemned  excessive  study  of  languages 
and  did  not  require  more  than  a  general  knowledge 
from  a  student  unless  he  was  preparing  for  some  pro- 
fession in  which  specialised  knowledge  was  required^. 
For  example.  Lord  Kilkerran  writing  in  1743  about  his 
son,  said  he  was  17  and  had  learnt  Latin  and  Greek  at 
a  public  school,  but  that  as  he  was  intending  to  study 
Law  he  would  require  to  do  more  Latin.  The  rules, 
already  referred  to,  show  that  in  the  first  and  second 
years  a  Latin  disputation  alternated  with  an  English 
one  ;  if  Latin  compositions  or  orations  were  not  required 
in  Priestley's  day  (1752-1755)  the  probability  is  that 

^  The  MS.  account  (Dr  V^'^illiams's  Library)  of  Tutors  and 
Academies  gives  the  course  at  Daventry  (whither  the  Northampton 
Academy  removed  after  the  death  of  Doddridge)  and  adds  this 
note  '  The  French  lang.  is  taught  when  desired  &  ev.  student  de- 
signed for  a  learned  profession  takes  his  turn  in  orations  and 
other  public  exercises.' 


90  The  Rise  and  Progress 

before  his  death  (1752)  Doddridge  had  become  still  more 
firmly  convinced  of  the  wisdom  of  requiring  all  essays 
to  be  in  English. 

The  rules  for  '  Academical  Studies  '  are  important 
and  are  here  given  in  full.  They  show  the  care  with 
which  the  work  was  arranged  and  the  steps  taken  to 
see  that  requirements  were  fulfilled.  Doddridge  had  a 
keen  sense  not  only  of  the  value  of  education  but  of  the 
greatness  of  the  responsibility  of  his  position. 


Section  I.    Of  Academical  Studies. 

1.  1st  year.  Translations  from  Latin  into  English 
and  vice  versa  as  appointed  by  the  tutors  to  be  showed 
them  at  the  day  and  hour  appointed  and  in  the  last 
three  months  of  the  year  orations  are  to  be  exhibited 
in  Latin  and  English  alternately  every  Thursday,  which 
is  also  to  be  the  time  of  the  following  exercises. 

2.  In  first  half  of  second  year  these  orations  are 
to  be  continued,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  each 
is  in  his  turn  to  exhibit  a  Philosophical  Thesis  or 
Dissertation. 

3.  In  third  year  Ethical  Theses  or  Dissertations  are 
to  be  exhibited  weekly  as  above,  and  toward  the  end  of 
this  year  and  during  the  fourth  Theological. 

4.  The  Revolution  of  these  is  to  be  so  adjusted 
that  every  student  may  compose  at  least  six  orations, 
Theses  or  Dissertations  before  the  conclusion  of  his 
fourth  year. 

5.  ...... 

6 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        91 

7.  Exercises  are  to  be  first  written  in  a  paper  book, 
then  reviewed  and  corrected  by  one  of  the  tutors,  after 
that,  fairly  transcribed,  and  after  they  have  been 
exhibited  in  the  manner  which  shall  be  appointed,  a 
fair  copy  of  them,  with  the  author's  name  annexed, 
shall  be  delivered  to  the  tutor. 

8.  Two  sermons  on  given  subjects  to  be  composed 
by  every  theological  student  in  his  eighth  year,  to  be 
read  over  by  him  in  the  class,  and  having  been  there 
corrected  to  be  preached  in  the  family  if  the  student 
does  not  propose  preaching  in  public  before  he  leave 
the  Academy,  and  besides  these,  at  least  six  schemes  of 
other  sermons  on  given  texts  are  to  be  exhibited  in  the 
class  during  the  fourth  year  by  each  student. 

10.  Four  classics,  viz.  one  Greek  and  one  Latin 
poet  and  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  prose  writer  as 
appointed  by  the  tutor  are  to  be  read  by  each  student 
in  his  study  and  observations  are  to  be  written  upon 
them,  to  be  kept  in  a  distinct  book,  and  communicated 
to  the  tutor  whenever  he  shall  think  fit. 

11.  Each  student  of  the  upper  class  may  be  allowed 
to  propose  a  difficult  scripture  to  the  Principal  Tutor 
every  Thursday  to  be  discussed  by  him  the  next 
Thursday.  But  it  will  be  expected  that  the  person 
proposing  them  write  some  memorandum  of  the  solu- 
tion . . . etc. 

12.  . .  .each  Theological  Pupil  will  be  expected  to 
write,  either  at  meeting  or  afterward ....  Hints  of  all 
the  Sermons  he  hears,  to  be  examined  by  the  Tutor 
. . .etc. 

13.  On  the  four  Thursdays  preceding  the  long 
vacation,  the  whole  Academy  is  to  meet  at  ten  in  the 


92  The  Rise  and  Progress 

morning,  and  all  the  forenoon  is  to  be  spent  in  the 
■examination  of  Students ....  And  on  the  first  of  these 
days  disputations  shall  be  held  by  the  two  upper  classes 
in  the  Presence  of  the  Juniors,  that  they  may  learn  by 
example  the  method  of  Disputation . . .  etc. 

14.  In  case  of  a  total  neglect  of  preparing  an 
appointed  exercise  sixpence  is  to  be  forfeited  to  the 
box .... 

The  chief  part  of  Doddridge's  teaching  was  with  the 
theological  students  ;  the  staple  of  their  curriculum  was 
a  '  system  '  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  lectures  (the  pre- 
paration of  which  occupied  many  years  of  Doddridge's 
life)  on  '  The  Principal  subjects  in  Pneumatology  {i.e. 
Psychology),  Ethics  and  Divinity.'  These  lectures  were 
in  English  and  were  followed  by  questions  and  discus- 
sions about  any  points  not  perfectly  clear.  Jennings, 
Doddridge's  predecessor,  had  always  lectured  in  Latin, 
as  did  most  of  the  tutors  of  the  period,  but  so  great  was 
the  influence  of  Doddridge  that  his  lectures  in  English 
were  imitated  with  the  result  that  after  his  day  a 
lecture  in  Latin  (in  an  academy)  was  exceptional. 
Before  a  new  lecture  Doddridge  generally  questioned 
the  students  on  what  had  been  taken  at  the  last  ; 
during  the  lecture  (and  during  sermons,  too)  the  students 
were  required  to  take  notes  in  shorthand  and  to  tran- 
scribe as  much  as  possible  afterwards.  Rich's  short- 
hand as  improved  by  Doddridge  was,  therefore,  studied. 

Doddridge's  students  came  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  some  even  from  Holland  ;  among 
them  were  several  who  occupied  positions  of  importance 
as  lawyers,  doctors  or  ministers  in  various  parts  of 
the    country.     One    of    these    ministers  was   Samuel 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        93 

Mercer^  of  Chowbent,  Lancashire  ;  in  his  Lancashire 
Nonconformity^  Mr  Nightingale  gives  a  letter  from 
young  Samuel  Mercer  while  at  the  academy,  to  his 
parents.     It  is  well  worth  giving  in  full. 

Novr.  12,  1750. 
Honoured  Parents, 

"  I  received  your  last,  which  I  had  intended  to  have 
answered  sooner,  had  I  not  had  so  much  business  upon  my 
hands,  which  to  have  omitted  would  have  been  to  my  dis- 
advantage, etc.  As  for  seeing  you  and  my  brother  at  North- 
ampton I  should  be  extremely  glad,  but,  perhaps,  you  may 
think  that  may  be  an  excuse  for  my  not  coming  home,  for, 
I  will  assure  you  that  I  cannot  go  to  London  along  with  you, 
for  our  vacation  will  begin  the  latter  end  of  June,  so  that  if 
you  come  it  will  be  unnecessary  charges  for  you  to  come  through 
Northampton,  but  I  should  be  very  glad  if  you  would  send  me 
word  in  your  next  letter  whether  you  would  have  me  come 
home  or  no,  etc. 

"  If  I  have  been  extravagant  in  my  expenses  I  am  not 
sensible  of  it.  You  see  always  all  my  bills  that  are  of  any 
importance,  and  as  I  have  sent  you  some  enclosed  in  this  letter, 
which  I  hope  you  will  have  no  objection  to.     The  everlasting 

which  you  see  is  for  two  pair  of waistcoats,  one  pair 

of  which  I  have  worn  out  almost ;  and  my  gOAvn  is  so  far  gone 
that  it  will  scarce  last  me  till  a  few  weeks  longer.  I  have 
bought  a  new  wig  which  I  stood  in  great  need  of.  I  wore  my 
old  one  till  it  was  not  worth  a  penny,  and  that  wig  which  I 
had  when  I  first  came  is  almost  done.  And  I  have  bespoke  a 
new  pair  of  boots,  which  I  cannot  possibly  do  without,  for  if 
you  knew  what  I  undergo  by  going  into  the  country  towns  to 
repeat  sermons  and  pray.  It  happened  I  and  another  of  my 
fellow  pupils  were  gone  out  to  repeat  a  sermon  and  being 
without  boots  we  were  two  hours  in  a  storm  of  rain  and  wind. 
We  were  lost  in  a  country  where  we  did  not  know  nothing  at 

^  Minister  at  Toxteth  Park,  Liverpool. 
*  Vol.  VI.  pp.  loi,  102. 


94  The  Rise  and  Progress 

all  of,  so  that  I  think  it  is  not  only  useful  but  necessary  to  have 
a  pair.  I  have,  according  to  your  desire,  bought  a  quantity  of 
coals,  of  which  I  have  bought  lo  Hund.,  which  cost  12s.  which 
I  borrow'd  of  my  mistress.  I  should  be  very  glad  to  know  in 
particular  whether  Mr  Harding  preached  from  that  text  and 
whether  he  has  converted  any  of  the  new  notioners  by  preaching. 
I  should  be  very  glad  if  you  would  desire  Mr  Harding  to  let  me 
have  a  few  of  his  most  orthodox  sermons  to  go  to  repeat.  I 
wish  you  would  be  so  good  as  to  ask  him  that  favour,  if  you 
think  it  would  not  be  improper.  If  he  could  I  hope  you  would 
send  them  immediately.  Let  me  know  in  your  next  how  the 
affair  is,  since  sermons  of  the  same  kind  are  so  very  scarce 
that  we  can  scarce  light  on  a  book  to  write  a  good  sermon  out 
of,  but  one  or  anothei  has  heard.  Pray  let  me  know  in  this 
particular  the  next  letter.  And  I  should  be  very  glad  if  you 
would  send  me  my  watch  and  send  me  a  box  with  a  few  of  your 
best  books,  which  will  be  the  most  convenient  for  me,  as  soon 
as  possible.  And  let  me  know  how  my  brother  Robert  goes 
on,  whether  he  is  gone  to  St  Helen's  School — and  if  he  is  pray 
don't,  and  I  earnestly  beg  you  would  board  him  at  William 
Claughton's,  for  if  you  do,  so  young  as  he  is,  he  will  certainly 
be  ruined  ;  for  I  have  seen  the  many  dangers  and  difficulties, 
and  have  wondered  since  how  I  broke  through  them  ;  so  that 
for  your  own  happiness  and  his  everlasting  happiness,  do  not 
send  him  thither,  for  if  I  thought  you  would  send  him  thither 
I  should  never  be  easy,  etc.  So  I  must  beg  leave  to  conclude 
with  my  respects,  as  due. 

From  your  very  dutiful  son 

S.  Mercer. 
P.S.  D'  Father, — I  should  esteem  it  not  only  as  a  great 
favour,  but  as  a  great  honour  paid  to  me,  if  you  would  be  so 
good  as  it  is  for  my  interest,  to  make  a  present  to  the  doctor 
of  a  couple  of  Cheshire  cheeses^,  not  strong,  but  mild  and  fat 
which  will  be  very  acceptable  to  the  doctor,  as  he  provided  me 
a  tutor  last  year,  and  I  do  not  know  whether  he  will  be  paid 

^  Samuel's  father  was  Joseph  Mercer,  a  farmer  and  cheese  factor, 
of  Allerton  near  Liverpool. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        95 

for  it,  and  likewise  if  you  please  that  I  should  make  a  present 
of  something  about  a  crown  value  to  the  doctor's  Assistant, 
who,  when  he  should  have  been  taking  recreation  has  been 
instructing  me  so  that  it  would  be  a  means  of  my  further  im- 
provement, and  likewise  to  send  my  Dame  for  she  is  a  widow 
and  she  behaves  very  well  to  me.  I  hope,  father,  you  will  not 
forget.  And  I  must  beg  the  favour  in  particular  to  send  a 
Cheshire  cheese  to  one  of  my  particular  acquaintance,  a  shop 
keeper,  where  I  buy  my  stockings,  and  where  I  am  positive  of 
it,  I  am  used  as  if  I  were  almost  some  of  their  family,  whose  son 
I  have  under  my  care  to  teach  Latin,  and,  who,  if  it  lay  in  their 
power,  would  help  me  in  the  greatest  extremity,  who  has 
made  me  several  handsome  presents  and  sell  me  their  goods,  as 
I  have  seen  with  my  own  eyes — a  pair  of  stockings  I  have 
bought  dd.  cheaper  than  they  have  sold  to  any  of  our  gentle- 
men— who  are  very  religious  people,  not  those  who  cant  people 
out  of  theii  money,  and  give  them  fair  words. 

This  letter  is  illustrative,  not  only  of  the  pecuniary 
difficulties  of  many  of  the  students  in  the  academies, 
but  also  of  the  wilHngness  of  the  Tutors  to  give  free 
tuition  to  poor  youths.  An  extract  from  Doddridge's 
diary  evidently  refers  to  the  circumstances  mentioned 
by  Mercer  ;  '  Whereas  the  income  of  my  people  and 
estate,  presents  included,  has  not  been  above  a  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  more  than  by  pupils,  of  which  more 
than  one-tenth  has  been  given  in  the  education  of  four 
of  my  pupils — Walker,  B.  Strange,  Mercer  and  White.' 

Among  the  students  were  also  John  Aikin,  Tutor  at 
Warrington,  Samuel  Merrivale,  Tutor  at  Exeter,  and 
Caleb  Ashworth,  Doddridge's  successor  at  Daventry. 

After  twenty-two  years'  toil,  Doddridge,  never  a 
strong  man,  had  to  leave  Northampton,  175 1.  He  died 
in  the  following  year. 

A  few  years  after  beginning  his  work  at  Northampton, 


96  The  Rise  and  Progress 

Doddridge  had  been  approached  as  to  his  wiUing- 
ness  to  be  the  first  Theological  Tutor  of  an  academy 
established  under  the  will  of  a  wealthy  Nonconformist, 
Mr  Coward,  who  died  1738.  Mr  Coward's  trustees 
supported  several  young  men  in  Doddridge's  academy, 
but  did  not  seek  to  direct  its  management.  After 
Doddridge's  death,  however,  the  academy  was  taken 
under  their  control ;  Dr  Caleb  Ashworth  of  Daventry 
was  appointed  the  Theological  Tutor  ;  and  the  academy 
was  moved  to  Daventry,  where  it  remained  till  1789. 
There  were  several  other  removals,  and  in  1833,  in 
order  that  the  students  might  attend  the  Arts  course 
at  University  College  and  receive  only  theological  train- 
ing from  their  Principal,  it  was  established  in  Byng  Place 
and  was  known  as  Coward's  College.  This  arrangement 
continued  until  the  union  of  the  three  London  Colleges 
in  1850I. 

Development  in  the  second  period  is  really  suf- 
ficiently shown  by  this  account  of  Northampton,  but 
Tewkesbury,  one  of  the  smaller  academies  of  the  period, 
deserves  special  mention  as  having  educated  two  notable 
dignitaries  of  the  Established  Church,  Archbishop 
Seeker  and  Joseph  Butler.  Samuel  Chandler,  too,  was 
at  Tewkesbury  for  a  time.  The  Tutor  at  Tewkesbury, 
Samuel  Jones,  was  a  man  of  remarkable  ability  and 
one  to  whom  both  Jennings  and  Doddridge  were  in- 
debted in  the  preparation  of  their  lectures. 

One  of  the  entries  in  the  MS.  collection  of  the  lives 
of  Dissenting  ministers  (in  Dr  Williams's  Library)  reads 
as  follows : 

1  Senatus  Academicus,  p.  53.     List  of  Academies,  no.  26.  period  II, 
Appendix  No.  I. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        97 

'  About  the  year  1708  or  g  he  (Samuel  Jones)  began 
an  Academy  at  Gloucester  and  then  removed  to  Tewkes- 
bury . . .  and,  for  the  space  of  twelve  years,  had  a  most 
flourishing  Academy,  famed  for  as  much  learning  as 
any  one  seminary  among  the  Nonconformists.  The 
Languages  and  Mathematics  were  very  much  studied 
here.  About  100  students  were  brought  up  in  twelve 
years.' 

The  founder  of  this  academy,  Samuel  Jones,  though 
not  an  Oxford  or  Cambridge  man,  had  received  a  very 
good  education.  After  having  attended  two  Dissenting 
Academies  in  Wales,  at  Abergavenny  (perhaps,  however, 
this  was  a  grammar  school)  under  Roger  Griffith,  and 
at  Knells  (Radnorshire)  under  John  Weaver,  an  ejected 
minister  and  University  man,  Jones  went  to  Leyden 
University,  1706.  There  he  came  under  the  influence 
of  some  of  the  most  illustrious  scholars  of  the  day — 
among  them,  Hermann  Witsius  and  James  Perizonius. 
Jones  was,  therefore,  well  qualified  by  university  learn- 
ing to  start  an  academy. 

Jones  remained  at  Gloucester  until  1712,  and  then 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  larger  premises  caused  him 
to  go  to  Tewkesbury.  While  the  academy  was  still  at 
Gloucester,  Thomas  Seeker  (afterwards  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury)  entered  in  1710. 

Seeker  had  been  under  Timothy  JoUie  at  Attercliffe, 
and,  no  doubt,  moved  to  Jones'  Academy  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  special  advantages  under  him  in  some  branch 
of  his  work — just  as  he,  later,  moved  first  to  London  to 
study  Science  under  John  Eames,  F.R.S.  (Moorfields — 
see  No.  22,  Period  II)  and  then  to  Paris  and  Leyden, 
where    he    graduated    as    M.D.,   and    finally,   having 

p.  D.  A.  7 


98  The  Rise  and  Progress 

conformed,  to  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  It  may  be  con- 
jectured that  the  subjects  in  which  Seeker  wished  to 
specialise  at  Tewkesbury  were  those  allied  to  biblical 
study,  of  which  Jones  made  a  special  feature,  for  under 
Witsius  he  had  spent  much  time  on  Jewish  Antiquities, 
Hebrew  and  Greek  Testament  and  kindred  studies. 
Writing  to  Dr  Watts,  Seeker  says  '  I  began  to  learn 
Hebrew. .  .we  read  every  day  two  verses  apiece  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  we  turn  into  Greek  (no  one 
knowing  which  his  verses  shall  be,  though  at  first  it 
was  otherwise).'  A  wise  change  of  method  of  reading 
in  class  seems  to  be  suggested  here. 

In  the  same  letter  to  Watts  ^  Seeker  gives  an  account 
of  the  work  done  at  Tewkesbury,  He  mentions  the 
usual  subjects,  amongst  which  Theology  seems  to  have 
the  chief  place.  Heereboord's  Logic  and  Locke's  Under- 
standing are  specially  named.  The  parts  of  his  letter 
dealing  with  Jones's  methods  are  more  interesting  and 
deserve  to  be  quoted  at  length,  '  What  Mr  Jones 
dictated  to  us  was  but  short,  containing  a  clear  and 
brief  account  of  the  matter ;  references  to  the  places 
where  it  was  more  fully  treated  of  and  remarks  on,  or 
explications  of,  the  authors  cited,  when  need  required 
it.  At  our  next  lecture  we  gave  an  account  both  of  what 
the  author  quoted  and  our  Tutor  said,  who  commonly 
gave  a  larger  explication  of  it  and  so  proceeded  to  the 
next  thing  in  order.  In  the  morning  the  students  took 
Hebrew,  Greek  and  Logic,  critical  lectures  on  the 
Antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  Language — corruption  of  the 

Scriptures,  etc this  is  what  we  first  set  about  in  the 

afternoon,  which,  being  finished,  we  read  a  chapter  in 

^  See  Gibbons'  Memoirs  of  Dr  Isaac  Waits,  p.  346  et  seq. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies        99 

Greek  Testament — after  that  Mathematics — Algebra 
and  proportion  ;  first  six  books  of  Eudid,  This  is  our 
daily  employment,  which  in  the  morning  takes  about 
two  hours  and  something  more  in  afternoon.  Only 
on  Wednesdays  in  the  morning  we  read  Dionysius's 
Periegesis,  on  which  we  have  notes,  mostly  geo- 
graphical, but  with  some  criticisms  intermixed.  In 
the  afternoon  (Wednesday)  we  had  no  lecture^.'  During 
college  hours  Latin  had  always  to  be  spoken.  Seeker 
speaks  of  the  Library  '  which  is  composed  for  the  most 
part  of  foreign  books,  which  seem  to  be  very  well 
chosen  and  are,  every  day,  of  great  advantage  to  us.' 

Owing,  no  doubt,  to  Samuel  Jones's  education  at 
Leyden,  the  Theological  course  at  Tewkesbury  was 
more  emphasised  than  the  other  work,  and  probably 
received  more  attention  than  was  paid  to  it  in  other 
academies.  The  result  of  this  work  was  the  production 
of  such  great  scholars  and  theologians  as  Joseph  Butler 
and  Samuel  Chandler. 

Butler  entered  the  academy  in  the  Gloucester  days 
and  removed  to  Tewkesbury.  While  there  he  read 
many  philosophical  and  theological  works.  In  1714 
he  conformed,  and,  desiring  to  take  orders  in  the 
Established  Church,  went  to  Oriel,  Oxford,  where,  he 
says  '  the  frivolous  lectures  quite  tired  me  out  2.'  Were 
they  such  a  contrast  to  the  serious  work  of  the  academy  ? 
Chandler,  too,  was  at  the  academy  and  formed  there 

1  Seeker's  Time-table  in  1712  works  out  as  follows  :  ' 
Morning  (2  hours)  Afternoon  (2-3  hours)  Evening 

Hebrew  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature  Private 

Greek  Greek  New  Testament  Reading 

Logic  Mathematics 

*  Quoted  in  Davies'  Account  of  Tewkesbury  Academy,  p.  23. 

7—2 


lOO  The  Rise  and  Progress 

life-long  friendships  with  Butler  and  Seeker.  He,  too, 
did  great  service  in  the  defence  of  Christianity  and 
wrote  many  theological  works.  He  became  the  most 
influential  and  respected  minister  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  was  honoured  with  the  degree  of  D.D.  by 
Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen.  Another  student  to  be 
mentioned  is  John  Bowles,  who  had,  Uke  Seeker,  been 
under  Jollie.  After  leaving  Tewkesbury,  he  continued 
his  Law  Studies  and  in  1757  became  Lord  Chancellor  of 
Ireland. 

Other  students  who  filled  important  positions  as 
ministers  or  Tutors  were  Andrew  Gifford,  Jeremiah 
Jones,  Edward  Godwin  and  Vavasor  Griffiths. 

Samuel  Jones,  the  Tutor,  died  October  nth,  1719. 
He  had  not  had  a  peaceful  time  at  Tewkesbury,  for 
there,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  when  Sache- 
vereU's  preaching  and  the  agitation  about  the  Schism 
Bill  raised  the  cry  of  '  The  Church  in  danger,'  there 
were  disturbances  which  threatened  to  be  serious.  In 
spite  of  these  troubles,  however,  Jones  toiled  on.  The 
following  is  Archbishop  Seeker's  estimate  of  his  Tutor. 
'  Mr  Jones,  I  take  to  be  a  man  of  real  piety,  great 
learning  and  an  agreeable  temper  ;  one  who  is  very 
dihgent  in  instructing  all  under  his  care,  and  very  well 
qualified  to  give  instructions,  and  whose  well-managed 
famiUarity  will  always  make  him  respected.  He  is  very 
strict  in  keeping  good  orders,  and  will  effectually 
preserve  his  pupils  from  negligence  and  immorality^.' 
Jones  won  a  reputation  as  a  thoroughly  good  scholar 
and  Tutor.  His  lectures  were  not  pubhshed,  but  in 
MS.  those  on  Jewish  Antiquities  were  used  by  Jennings 

^  Memoirs  of  Dr  Isaac  Waits,  Gibbons,  p.  347. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       loi 

at  Kibworth  and  by  Doddridge,  who  made  use  of  his 
Ethics  lectures  also. 

After  Jones's  death  the  academy  was  discontinued. 
There  is  a  tradition  which  says  that  the  academy  was 
removed  to  Carmarthen,  but  probably  the  only  founda- 
tion for  this  is,  that  the  Library  was  sent  there. 

One  cannot  read  the  accounts  of  the  second  period 
academies  without  realising  that  within  less  than  a 
hundred  years  from  the  Conformity  legislation  the  small 
struggling  academies  had  developed  into  an  important 
educational  system  doing  a  much  needed  work  in  the 
country.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  small 
early  academies,  often  started  diffidently  and  in  some 
cases  in  an  almost  apologetic  spirit,  and  these  later 
academies  with  their  more  complete  organisation  and 
their  specialised  studies  which  made  them  so  successful 
in  competing  with  the  universities. 

Doddridge  was  great  not  only  in  his  own  academy 
at  Northampton  but  in  his  influence  in  the  country 
generally.  In  his  day,  to  mention  Northampton 
academy  was  not  merely  to  speak  of  the  best  educa- 
tional centre  in  the  country,  it  was  also  to  speak  of  a 
new  education. 

The  period  1690-1750  was  a  period  of  transition. 
The  first  period  academies,  1662-1690  can  only  be 
described  as  '  classical,'  those  of  the  second  period 
1690-1750  were  classical-modem.  During  the  period 
there  gradually  strengthened  the  recognition  of  the 
fact — dimly  seen  by  the  ejected  teachers — that  the  old 
aim  of  education  in  the  grammar  schools  and  the  uni- 
versities, to  fit  a  man  to  become  a  clergyman — a  clerk — 
was  too  narrow.     Consequently  the  academies  opened 


I02  The  Rise  and  Progress 

their  doors  to  youths  who,  not  wishing  to  become 
professional  men,  needed  a  good  general  education  with 
possibly  a  knowledge  of  French  or  Science  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  a  commercial  life.  By  degrees  the  academy 
students  were  divided  and  there  came  into  being 
distinct  groups  taking  '  modem  '  subjects.  More  time 
was  therefore  given  to  History,  Geography,  to  various 
sciences  and  to  modern  languages,  and  these  subjects 
received  a  definite  place  in  the  time-table,  and  instead 
of  being  just  read  by  the  students  in  their  rooms  each 
had  a  lecture  period  allotted  to  it.  And  if  often  the 
'  lecture '  consisted  in  nothing  but  questioning  the 
students  on  their  reading,  or  if  French  were  '  read 
without  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  which  Mr  Jen- 
nings had  no  knowledge,'  still  an  advance  had  been 
made.  Attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  cheapness  of 
the  academies,  and  as  time  went  on  their  splendid 
education  appealed  more  and  more  to  the  middle 
classes  who  were  becoming  convinced  of  the  power 
given  to  them  by  knowledge.  In  method,  too,  changes 
were  made.  There  seems  to  have  been  more  care  for 
the  individual  in  the  second  period  academies.  The 
attempt  to  help  backward  students  in  the  evening  at 
Northampton  is  indicative  of  this,  and  then,  too,  the 
lectures  were  not  merely  read  with  no  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  lecturer  that  they  should  be  understood. 
They  were  all,  as  has  been  noticed,  in  English  and  after 
the  lecture,  questions  and  discussions,  which  seem, 
during  the  period,  to  have  developed  into  debating 
societies^  were  invited. 

^  Doddridge's  Kibworth  course,  see  Appendix  No.  II ;  influence 
of  rationalism,  see  below,  p.  145. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       103 

Priestley,  who  went  to  the  Northampton  Academy 
just  after  the  removal  to  Daventry,  occasioned  by  the 
death  of  Doddridge,  writes  '  In  my  time  the  Academy 
was  in  a  state  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  serious 
pursuit  of  truth,  as  the  students  were  about  equally 
divided  upon  every  question  of  much  importance,  such 
as  liberty  and  necessity,  the  sleep  of  the  soul,  and  all 
the  articles  of  theological  orthodoxy  and  heresy ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  all  these  topics  were  the  subject 
of  continual  discussion.  Our  tutors  also  were  of 
different  opinions  ;  Dr  Ash  worth  taking  the  orthodox 
side  of  every  question  and  Mr  Clark,  the  sub-tutor,  that 
of  heresy,  though  always  with  the  greatest  modesty. 
Our  lectures  had  often  the  air  of  friendly  conversations 
on  the  subjects  to  which  they  related.  We  were 
permitted  to  ask  whatever  questions  and  to  make 
whatever  remarks  we  pleased,  and  we  did  it  with  the 
greatest  but  without  any  offensive,  freedom.  The 
general  plan  of  our  studies  which  may  be  seen  in 
Dr  Doddridge's  published  lectures  was  exceedingly 
favourable  to  free  inquiry,  as  we  were  referred  to 
authors  on  both  sides  of  every  question,  and  even 
required  to  give  an  account  of  them^.' 

Indeed,  the  Tutors  seem  to  have  been  desirous  not 
of  cramming  their  students  with  facts  but  of  educating 
them  and  of  training  them  to  think,  and  what  is  more, 
to  express  their  thoughts  in  their  own  tongue. 

These  advances  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  of 
the  next  period.  The  wish  to  give  clearer  expression 
to  these  new  educational  ideas  crystallised  into  still 
more  definite  action  about  themiddleof  the  i8th century, 

^  Rutt,  Li/is  and  Correspondence  oj  Joseph  Priestley,  Vol.  i.  p.  23. 


I04  The  Rise  and  Progress 

when  a  very  real  attempt  was  made  to  bring  education 
into  closer  touch  with  life.  '  Why,'  it  was  asked, 
'  should  youths  be  trained  to  be  ministers,  lawyers  and 
doctors  and  not  be  trained  to  be  merchants,  clerks  and 
tradesmen  ?  '  This  broader  conception  of  the  aim  of 
education  received  expression  in  Priestley's  Essay  on 
Education  in  the  preface  of  which  he  says  :  '  I  mean  to 
point  out  one  capital  defect  in  the  usual  method  of 
educating  young  gentlemen,  who  are  not  designed  for 
any  of  the  learned  professions,  in  places  of  public  and 
liberal  education  and  at  the  same  time  in  some  measure 
to  supply  that  defect  by  giving  a  delineation  of  a  set 
of  lectures  equally  useful  for  any  department  of  life, 
such  as  has  a  nearer  connection  with  their  conduct  in 
it  and  therefore  may  bid  fair  to  engage  their  attention 
and  be  of  more  real  use  to  them  than  any  branch  of 
learning  to  which  they  have  hitherto  been  made  to 
apply,  after  they  have  left  the  Grammar  School^.' 

In  accordance  with  these  ideas  the  modem  subjects, 
and  new  methods  already  attempted  in  the  academies  of 
the  second  period,  received  more  attention.  In  addition 
to  all  the  lectures  being  delivered  in  English  there  were 
lessons  in  English  itself — from  being  only  a  vehicle  for 
the  communication  of  knowledge  it  came  to  be  recog- 
nised as  a  subject  worthy  of  study  for  its  own  sake. 

This  study  of  English  and  also  of  History,  Geography 
and  Chemistry  was  strongly  advocated  by  Priestley^ 
who  was  fortunate  in  having  an  opportunity  of  putting 
into  practice  his  advanced  views  on  Education  in 
an    academy   at   Warrington,  which,  because   of   the 

^  Essay  on  Education,  Priestley. 

•  For  Priestley's  syllabuses,  etc.,  see  Appendix  VI. 


of  the  Dissentijtg  Academies       105 

circumstances  attending  its  foundation  and  the  exceed- 
ingly broad  aims  of  the  directors,  was  pecuharly  fitted 
to  be  the  institution  in  which  educational  experiments, 
of  the  nature  suggested,  might  be  made. 

About  1753-5  the  Rev.  John  Seddon,  a  young 
minister  in  Warrington,  began  to  appeal  for  subscrip- 
tions to  start  an  academy  which  should  be  for  the 
education  '  of  ministers  free  to  follow  the  dictates  of 
their  own  judgments  in  the  inquiries  after  truth,  with- 
out any  undue  bias  imposed  on  their  understandings  ' 
and  which  should  '  give  some  knowledge  to  those  who 
were  engaged  in  commercial  life  as  well  as  in  the 
learned  professions  and  in  the  more  useful  branches 
of  literature^.'  Seddon  appealed  to  churches  and  to 
the  principal  merchants  of  the  northern  commercial 
centres  ;  in  1754  he  had  received  promises  of  help 
from  churches  as  far  away  as  Bristol  and  Exeter,  and 
from  Manchester  £94.  los.  oi.,from  Liverpool £46. 4s.  od., 
Birmingham  ;^44.  12s.  ^i.,  and  Warrington  £31. 15s.  ^i. 
These  sums  were  contributed  by  laymen — ^business  men. 
Their  interest  in  the  undertaking  is  evidence  of  the  need 
for  an  education  on  what  might  be  called  a  '  commercial ' 
basis. 

The  undertaking  was  evidently  regarded  as  most 
important  ;  plan  succeeded  plan,  and  the  discussion 
seemed  endless,  but  at  last,  on  January  30th,  1757, 
at  a  meeting  of  the  supporters  of  the  academy, 
'  proposals  for  carrying  into  execution  a  plan  for  the 
liberal  education  of  youth  '  were  definitely  considered ; 
trustees  appointed  ;   necessary  staff  discussed  and  fees 

*  From    Transactions    of   Historical  Society   of  Lancashire   and 
Cheshire,  Vol.  xi. 


io6  The  Rise  and  Progress 

arranged.  Mr  Seddon,  as  the  Secretary,  had  the 
arrangements  to  make.  Owing  probably  to  jealousy 
between  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  the  academy  was 
to  be  at  Warrington  and  a  suitable  house  was  taken 
(this  house  is  still  standing).  It  was  decided  to  have 
four  tutors,  but  only  three  were  appointed — Dr  Taylor, 
of  Norwich,  '  whose  learning  was  so  generally  acknow- 
ledged that  in  1754  all  the  English  and  Welsh  bishops 
and  archbishops,  except  four,  were  among  the  sub- 
scribers to  his  great  Hebrew  concordance,'  became 
Tutor  in  Divinity ;  Mr  Holt,  of  Kirkdale,  '  whose 
whole  soul  was  absorbed  by  his  science,'  in  Natural 
Philosophy  (Mathematics)  ;  and  Mr  Dyer,  of  London, 
in  Languages  and  polite  literature  and  '  for  the  present 
in  Moral  Philosophy.'  Each  was  to  receive  from  the 
fund  £100  per  annum,  and  from  each  of  the  richer 
students  £2  per  annum  (poorer  students  were  free). 
In  order  to  make  their  income  suffice  for  their  needs, 
the  tutors  (they  were  non-resident)  took  boarders  into 
their  houses  at  £15  per  annum  for  those  who  had  two 
months'  vacation  and  £18  for  those  who  remained  the 
whole  year — tea,  washing,  fire  and  candles  were  extra. 

Mr  Dyer,  though  appointed,  did  not  go  to  Warring  • 
ton  and  Dr  Aikin  (Mrs  Barbauld's  father)  took  his 
place. 

Among  the  preparations  for  the  academy  must  be 
mentioned  the  endeavours  of  the  Trustees  to  form  a 
Library  '  in  some  degree  correspondent  to  the  extensive 
plan  contemplated.'  They  were  fortunate  in  obtaining 
books  from  a  few  benefactors,  among  whom  the  chief 
were  Dr  Percival,  of  Liverpool,  Kendall,  of  Ulverstone, 
and  the  son  of  Dr  Benjamin  Grosvenor,  of  London, 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       107 

who  gave  all  his  father's  valuable  library.  A  catalogue 
was  printed  and  is  useful  as  indicating  the  books  of 
reference  used  by  the  students^. 

The  academy  opened  with  three  students  on 
October  20th,  1757.  In  accordance  with  the  customary 
practice,  the  Divinity  Tutor  took  the  position  of  Head 
of  the  academy.  Unfortunately,  Dr  Taylor  became 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Trustees,  and  this 
unhappy  circumstance,  no  doubt,  proved  a  drawback 
to  the  academy  which  did  not  become  so  large  as  its 
founders  had  hoped.  The  entries  average  14  a  year, 
393  students  being  trained  there  during  its  short 
existence,  1757-1783. 

A  hst  in  Vol.  ix  of  the  Monthly  Repository  enables 
an  analysis  of  the  students  taking  various  courses  to  be 
made — ^it  is  as  follows  : 

Entered  for  Law  22 

„        ,,  Medicine       24 

„  Divinity       52 

„         „  Commerce    98 

Course  not  specified      197 

*  Commerce  '  seems  to  indicate  the  course  taken  by 
merchants,  bankers,  and  those  designed  for  the  leading 
positions  in  large  commercial  companies.  Brewers, 
shop-keepers — all  '  tradesmen  ' — are  among  the  '  un- 
specified '  as  also  are  many  who  later  entered  the  army 
and  some  who  were  styled  '  country  gentlemen.'  These 
had  a  good  '  general '  education  2. 

*  See  Appendix  IV  for  Analysis  of  Catalogue  and  full  list  of  books, 
under  heads  (i)  History,  Geography,  Voyages,  etc.,  {2)  Miscellaneous. 

*  See  also  Appendix  V. 


io8  The  Rise  and  Progress 

The  Tutors^  at  this  academy  are  particularly 
interesting  and  seem  to  justify  the  following  eulogistic 
remark,  '  At  Warrington  Academy  were  collected  some 
of  the  noblest  literati  of  their  day.  Here  the  free 
thought  of  English  Presbyterianism  first  began  to 
crystallise  into  the  Unitarian  theology.  Here  for  a 
time  was  the  centre  of  the  hberal  politics  and  the 
literary  taste  of  the  entire  country  2.'  One  can  imagine 
the  life  in  Warrington  in  those  days — the  theological 
discussions,  the  political  and  social  talks  of  the  tutors, 
the  literary  enthusiasm  of  Dr  Aikin's  daughter  and  her 
friends. 

In  1761  Dr  Taylor  died,  and  Dr  Aikin  took  his 
place.     Dr  Aikin's  successor  was  Joseph  Priestley.     In 

*  Divinity John  Taylor,  D.D.,   1757-1761. 

John  Aikin,  D.D.,   1761-1780. 
Nicholas  Clayton,  D.D.,    1780- 

1783. 

Classics John  Aikin,  D.D.,  1758-1761. 

Languages  and  Belles  Lettres     . .     J.  Priestley,  LL.D.,  1761-1767. 
Languages  and  Natural  History         J.     Reinhold    Forster,     LL.D. 

i767-i77o(?). 
La  Tour,  i770-(?). 
Belles  Lettres        . .  . .  . .     John  Seddon,  1 767-1 770. 

Wm.  Enfield,  LL.D..  1770-1783 
Classics       . .  , .  . .  . .     Gilbert  Wakefield,   A.B.,  1779- 

1783. 
Pendlebury    Houghton,     1778- 

1779  (Assistant). 
Mathematics  . .  . .  . .     John  Holt,   1757-1772. 

George   Walker,    F.R.S.,    1772— 

1774. 
Wm.  Enfield,  LL.D.,  1774-1783. 
Rector  Acadenaiae  ..  ..     John  Seddon,  1767-17  70. 

Wm.  Enfield,  1 770-1 783. 
*  Transactions  of  Historical  Society  of  Lancashire  and  Cheshire, 
Vol.  XI. 


of  tke  Dissenting  Academies       109 

the  following  year  the  academy  moved  to  larger  and 
more  convenient  buildings  in  Academy  Place,  and  there 
it  entered  upon  its  period  of  greatest  prosperity. 
Priestley  was  succeeded  by  John  Reinhold  Forster, 
a  German  scholar  and  naturalist.  Forster  went  with 
Captain  Cook  in  his  second  voyage  round  the  world  and 
was  considered  one  of  the  best  botanists  of  his  day. 
He  lectured  in  Natural  History  and  Modem  Languages 
and  took  the  junior  forms  in  Latin  and  Greek.  While 
at  Warrington  he  published  a  few  books,  among  which 
were  translations  of  Bougainville's  Voyage  Round  the 
World  and  of  Baron  Riedesel's  Travels  through  Sicily. 
According  to  a  report  issued  by  the  Trustees,  1770, 
*  foreigners,  from  time  to  time,  were  engaged  to  fill 
Reinhold  Forster's  place  '  ;  but  there  is  only  one  name 
given,  Mr  La  Tour,  who  is  believed  to  have  taught 
drawing  and  book-keeping,  in  addition  to  Modem 
Languages.  The  Rev.  George  Walker,  who  succeeded 
Holt,  stayed  only  two  years ;  he  afterwards  became 
Tutor  of  Divinity  at  Manchester  New  College  ;  Gilbert 
Wakefield,  the  Editor  of  Lucretius,  '  claims  rank  among 
the  foremost  of  Cambridge  men  who  have  thrown  light 
on  the  ancient  Classics.'  Before  his  death  in  1770, 
Seddon  had  become  Rector  and  had  lectured  on  Oratory 
and  grammar.  His  lectures  were  continued  by 
Dr  Enfield,  who  was  untiring  in  his  work  while  the 
academy  lasted.  Certainly,  the  Trustees  did  their  best 
to  secure  good  men.  Of  all  the  Tutors,  Dr  Aikin  and 
Dr  Priestley,  were  the  most  important,  and  an  idea  of 
this  academy,  which  was  so  far  in  advance  of  its  pre- 
decessors, will  best  be  gained  by  an  account  of  their 
methods 


no  The  Rise  and  Progress 

Dr  Aikin's  '  passion  for  Literature  '  led  his  father 
to  take  him  from  a  foreign  merchant's  office  (where  he 
had  acquired  '  extraordinary  facihty  in  French  ')  and 
to  allow  him  to  continue  his  education  at  a  school  kept 
by  a  retired  actor  with  a  taste  for  declamation,  which 
he  seems  to  have  imparted  to  Aikin.  Later,  in  1732, 
Aikin  became  a  pupil  under  Doddridge  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Aberdeen,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
D.D.  and  whence  he  returned  to  be  assistant  at  North- 
ampton, He  had,  therefore,  had  some  academical 
experience  before  going  to  Warrington.  Gilbert  Wake- 
field, for  a  short  time  his  colleague,  says  he  was  '  a 
gentleman  whose  endowments  as  a  man  and  as  a 
scholar  it  is  not  easy  to  exaggerate.  His  acquaintance 
with  all  true  evidence  of  revelation,  with  morals, 
politics,  metaphysics  was  most  accurate  and  extensive 
— he  knew  Hebrew,  French,  Greek  and  Latin,'  Aikin 
first  lectured  in  classics  1758-61  and  then  as  Lecturer 
in  Divinity,  became  head  of  the  academy  1761-1780 — 
he  was,  therefore,  connected  with  it  for  almost  the 
whole  period  of  its  existence.  Writing  to  the  Monthly 
Repository  in  1812,  an  old  student  gives  many  interest- 
ing details  about  Dr  Aikin's  work^.  The  method  he 
adopted  in  his  classical  lectures  is  described  at  some 
length.  It  was  his  plan  to  give  first  a  general  account 
of  the  author,  the  time  in  which  he  lived,  scope  of  his 
subject  and  his  treatment  of  it.  The  students,  each  in 
turn,  read  the  book  through  with  the  guidance  of  the 
tutor,  who  '  cleared  up  difficulties  and  illustrated  the 
scope  and  tendency  of  the  argument  with  uncommon 
clearness  and  precision.'     It  is  recorded  that  Dr  Aikin 

^  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  viii.  p.  166, 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       1 1 1 

usually  selected,  not  those  books  most  commonly  taken 
in  schools,  but  those  which  the  students  might  not 
otherwise  read  and  those  which  were  connected  with 
their  other  studies — the  parts  of  Herodotus  which  might 
illustrate  what  they  read  in  the  Old  Testament  about 
Assyria  and  Egypt  and  Justinian's  Institutes  when 
there  were  several  reading  for  the  Bar.  Passages  from 
modern  poetry,  in  which  Dr  Aikin  was  widely  read  and 
which  he  delighted  to  quote,  often  served  as  illustrations 
of  the  subject  in  hand.  The  Doctor  was  always  anxious 
to  be  understood  ;  at  the  end  of  a  lecture,  he  invariably 
added  '  Gentlemen,  have  I  explained  the  subject  to 
your  satisfaction  ?  '  and  then  waited  to  meet  any 
difficulty  which  might  be  stated. 

The  Divinity  students  were  required  to  write 
exercises  and  take  them  to  the  Saturday  morning 
lecture.  '  First  year,  essays  on  subjects  connected 
with  their  course,  or  Latin  Translation  or  Free  Com- 
position— second  and  third  year,  schemes  of  sermons, 
fourth  year  sermons  and  critical  dissertations.  These 
were  read  by  the  student  and  criticised  by  the  Tutor. 
After  the  exercises  were  examined  he  would  turn  to 
some  of  the  finest  passages  of  the  English  poets — 
Milton,  Pope,  Thomson,  Young,  and  Akenside,  and, 
having  first  read  a  considerable  portion,  he  heard  each 
of  the  students  read  in  order  and  pointed  out  their 
defects.  This  lecture  was  often  the  most  satisfactory 
and  improving  of  any  in  the  whole  week^.' 

The  same  writer  gratefully  remembers  the  '  frequent 
small  parties  to  drink  tea  with  him  '  that  Dr  Aikin  had. 

^  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  viii.  pp.  166-7. 


1 1 2  The  Rise  and  Progress 

On  these  occasions  the  students  were  encouraged  to 
discuss  the  various  topics  which  interested  them. 

These  details  leave  us  in  no  doubt  as  to  the  value 
of  Dr  Aikin's  work.  His  lectures  must  have  been 
really  interesting — Latin  and  Greek  must  have  been 
vastly  different  from  the  Latin  and  Greek  of  the  old 
days  and  of  many  of  the  schools  of  his  day. 

More  important,  however,  was  his  work  in  English. 
By  the  '  free,  familiar  conversation  '  at  his  tea-parties  ; 
by  discussion  after  the  lectures  ;  and  by  that  delightful 
Saturday  morning  class,  Dr  Aikin  was  doing  a  great 
work  in  remedying  that  serious  defect  in  the  early 
academies  so  much  regretted  hy  Defoe.  As  Principal, 
he  may  be  regarded  as  responsible  for  the  newer 
subjects  which  were  introduced  ;  but  it  is  chiefly  to 
Joseph  Priestley  that  the  honour  of  modernising  the 
curriculum  belongs.  Priestley  was  a  member  of  the 
staff  only  from  1761-67,  but  in  that  short  time  he 
revolutionised  the  work.  Appointed  as  Lecturer  in 
Languages  and  Belles  Lettres  he  undertook  subjects 
such  as  Chemistry,  Anatomy,  etc..  History  and 
Geography,  so  that  when  he  left,  two  men  divided  his 
work  ;  Forster  taking  Languages  and  Natural  History, 
and  Seddon,  Belles  Lettres. 

Priestley  (bom  1733)  was  adopted  by  his  aunt  in 
1742  and  sent  to  a  large  free  school,  where  he  learnt 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  Hebrew  on  holidays  ;  '  with  a 
view  to  trade,'  he  writes,  '  I  learned  French,  Italian  and 
High  Dutch.'  He  was  sent  to  Daventry  1752  under 
Dr  Caleb  Ash  worth  (Doddridge's  successor).  His 
account  of  his  education  is  too  interesting  to  be  omitted  ; 
'  between  my  leaving  the  grammar  school  and  going  to 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       113 

the  academy,  I  went  two  days  a  week  to  Mr  Hagger- 
stone,  a  Dissenting  minister.  Of  him  I  learnt  geometry, 
algebra,  various  branches  of  mathematics,  theoretical 
and  practical,  and  read  Gravesande's  Elements  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Watts's  Logic  and  Locke's  Human 
Understanding,  and  made  such  proficiency  in  these 
branches  that  when  I  was  admitted  at  the  Academy 
I  was  excused  all  the  studies  of  the  first  year  and  a 
great   part    of   those   of   the   second.     While    at    the 

grammar  school  I  learned  Mr  Annet's   Shorthand 

Among  other  things  at  this  time  I  had  a  great  aversion 
to  plays  and  romances,  so  that  I  never  read  any  works 
of  this  kind,  except  Robinson  Crusoe,  until  I  went  to 
the  Academy  1.' 

Priestley  remained  at  the  Daventry  Academy  for 
three  years,  1752-1755.  In  1758  he  took  charge  of  a 
church  at  Nantwich.  Here  also,  he  not  only  had  a 
school  but  gave  what  seem  to  have  been  courses  of 
popular  lecturers  on  scientific  subjects  to  adults.  One 
course  was  on  the  Use  of  the  Globes.  The  proceeds 
(ids.  6d.  for  twelve  lectures)  and  the  school  fees  enabled 
him  to  '  purchase  a  few  books,  some  philosophical 
instruments,  a  small  air-pump,  electrical  machine,  etc., 
and  by  entertaining  the  parents  and  friends  with 
experiments  in  which  the  scholars  were  generally  the 
operators  and  sometimes  the  lecturers  too,  I  extended 
the  reputation  of  the  school  2.'  It  was  for  the  use  of 
these  scholars  that  Priestley  wrote  his  Rudiments  of 
English  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  use  of  schools,  with 
observations  on  style,  which  he  afterwards  had  printed, 

*  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley,  J .  T.  Rutt,  p.  1 3  e/  seq. 
»  Ibid.  Vol.  I. 

P.  r>.  A.  8 


114  ^^^  i^/5^  and  Progress 

and  a  copy  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  present  hbrary 
at  Warrington.  In  the  preface  he  writes :  '  The  pro- 
priety of  introducing  Enghsh  grammar  into  EngHsh 
schools  cannot  be  disputed,  a  competent  knowledge  of 
our  own  language  being  both  useful  and  ornamental 
in  every  profession,  and  a  critical  knowledge  of  it 
absolutely  necessary  to  all  persons  of  Uberal  education 
....  though  the  grammar  school  be,  on  all  accounts, 
the  most  proper  place  for  learning  it,  how  many 
grammar  schools  have  we,  and  of  no  small  reputation, 
which  are  destitute  of  all  provision  for  the  regular 
teaching  of  it^  ?  '  At  the  end  of  the  book  are  '  examples 
of  English  composition,'  and  among  these  are  to  be 
found  extracts  from  the  Bible,  Addison,  Young,  Boling- 
broke,  Hume,  Swift,  Pope  and  others.  Wolsey's  fare- 
well is  the  only  one  from  Shakespeare. 

So  much  for  Priestley's  work  at  Nantwich — ^work 
which  prepared  him  for  that  at  the  academy  to  which 
he  went  in  1761 .  He  was  appointed  Tutor  of  Languages 
and  Belles  Lettres,  and,  judging  from  a  letter  written 
after  he  went  to  Warrington,  he  must  have  been  well 
occupied.  He  writes  (probably  about  1765) :  '  I  think 
myself  honoured  by  Mr  Blackburn's  inquiry  after  my 
department  in  the  Academy.  Besides  the  three  courses 
of  Lectures  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  the  Essay* 
I  teach  Latin,  Greek,  French  and  Itahan  and  read 
Lectures  on  the  Theory  of  Languages  and  Universal 
grammar,  on  Oratory  and  Philosophical  criticism  and 
also  on  Civil  Law^. ' 

^  Priestley,  Rudimenti  of  English  Grammar,   Preface,  p.  viii. 
2  I.e.  Priestley's  Essay  on  a  Liberal  Education. 
'  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley,  J.  T.  Rutt,  Vol.  i, 
p.  46. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       1 1 5 

Priestley  worked  at  Warrington  from  1761-67 — 
teaching  almost  every  subject  in  the  curriculum  and 
doing  his  utmost  to  make  the  education  of  real  value 
to  the  students.  During  this  time  he  attended  a  course 
of  lectures  on  chemistry  delivered  at  the  academy 
by  a  learned  apothecary  and  chemist,  Dr  Turner  of 
Liverpool.  He  also  wrote  and  published  courses  of 
lectures,  essays  on  educational  and  social  questions  and 
theological  works.  The  establishment  of  a  printing 
press  by  Eyres  in  Warrington  synchronised  with  the 
foundation  of  the  academy,  and  no  doubt  each  influenced 
the  other — the  academy  found  work  for  Eyres,  and  the 
fact  of  there  being  so  good  a  printer  in  the  neighbour- 
hood encouraged  the  tutors  to  print  their  essays  and 
translations. 

Priestley's  Essay  on  a  Course  of  Liberal  Education 
for  Civil  and  Active  Life  (1765)  is  noteworthy  for  its 
insistence  upon  the  necessity  of  altering  the  curriculum 
so  as  to  suit  the  changing  needs  of  the  day.  He  says — 
'  Formerly,  none  but  the  clergy  were  thought  to  have 
any  occasion  for  learning.  It  was  natural  therefore 
that  the  whole  plan  of  education,  from  the  grammar 
school  to  the  finishing  at  the  university  should  be 
calculated  for  their  use^.'  He  goes  on  to  show  that 
times  have  changed,  that  life  is  more  complex  and  that 
consequently  the  supine  inattention  with  which  affairs 
were  formerly  conducted  is  no  longer  safe  and  that  a 
'  different  and  better  furniture  of  mind  is  requisite  to 
be  brought  into  the  business  of  life.'  This  Priestley 
sees  is  '  certainly  a  call  upon  us  to  examine  the  state 
of  education   in  this  country.'     He  then  proceeds  to 

^  Essay  on  Liberal  Education,  p.  2. 

8—2 


1 16  The  Rise  and  Progress 

advocate  a  wide  study  of  history^  (with  which  geography 
is  to  be  closely  connected)  and  requires  that  a  youth 
going  through  the  courses  he  outlines  should  know 
sufficient  Latin  as  to  enable  him  to  read  the  easier 
classics  and  to  understand  and  use  '  the  more  difficult 
English  words  which  are  derived  from  the  Latin^.'  A 
good  knowledge  of  French  he  considers  very  necessary ; 
the  more  useful  branches  of  practical  mathematics 
should  be  known,  and  if  possible  he  should  have  some 
knowledge  of  algebra  and  geometry,  which  are  '  indis- 
pensable in  every  plan  of  liberal  education^.'  Priestley 
was  no  mere  idle  theorist.  His  work  at  the  academy 
proves  conclusively  his  serious  interest  in  education, 
and  accounts  of  the  reforms  he  was  attempting  evi- 
dently reached  other  tutors,  for  there  are  requests  from 
some  of  them  for  his  advice  on  certain  matters  relating 
to  teaching.  Priestley's  replies  show,  not  only  what 
methods  he  employed,  but  also  the  considerations 
which  guided  him  in  their  adoption.  Writing  to  a 
Mr  Caleb  Rotherham  under  date  February  14th,  1766, 
he  says :  '  I  introduced  lectures  on  history  and  general 
policy,  laws  and  constitutions  of  England  and  on  the 
history  of  England.  This  I  did  in  consequence  of 
observing  that  though  most  of  our  pupils  were  young 
men  designed  for  situations  in  civil  and  active  life, 
every  article  in  the  plan  of  their  education  was  adapted 
to  the  learned  professions.  In  order  to  recommend 
such  studies  as  I  introduced,  I  composed  an  "  Essay  on 
a  Course  of  Liberal  Education  for  Civil  and  Active  Life^." ' 

^  See  Appendix  VI  for  extracts  from  course  of  lectures. 
*  Essay  on  Liberal  Education,  pp.  i8,  19. 

'  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley,   ed.  J.  T.  Rutt, 
Vol.  I.  p.  50. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       1 1 7 

To  the  same  friend  he  says :  '  I  made  use  of  Holmes' 
Latin  Grammar ....  My  English  grammar  was  not 
ready  in  time  enough  for  me  to  make  a  trial  of  it. 
It  has  been  out  of  print  two  or  three  years  and  I  shall 
not  consent  to  its  being  reprinted  [he  changed  his  mind], 
Lowth's  is  much  better  ;  but  I  question  whether  it  will 
signify  much  to  teach  any  English  grammar.  Making 
the  scholars  compose  dialogues,  themes  etc.,  correcting 
their  bad  English  and  making  occasional  remarks,  I 
always  found  of  most  real  use.  Let  them  write  fair 
copies  of  the  English  of  many  of  their  lessons  and  omit 
no  opportunity  of  making  them  write  in  their  own 
language.  This  you  will  find  pleasant  to  yourself,  and 
of  prodigious  service  to  your  pupils.  Do  not  fail  to 
teach  geography  along  with  the  classics,  for  by  this 
means  your  pupils  will,  indirectly,  acquire  much  real 
knowledge.  I  had  a  little  school  library,  consisting 
chiefly  of  books  of  natural  and  civil  history,  with 
books  of  travel  which  I  made  them  read  (as  a  favour) 
with  the  map  before  them^.' 

Such  were  Priestley's  ideas  ;  such  was  his  work ;  its 
results  cannot  be  so  definitely  set  down.  It  can  only 
be  said  that  his  influence  was  very  great.  There  was 
first,  of  course,  the  result  of  his  work  in  the  academy 
in  the  training  of  the  young  men  under  him.  Then, 
through  the  continuance  of  his  work  by  those  who 
succeeded  him  there  was  carried  on  his  attempt  to 
modernise,  to  '  humanise '  the  curriculum.  Again, 
through  his  letters  and  essays  and  through  the  reputa- 
tion gained  by  the  academy,  the  influence  was  spread, 

^  Lt/e  and  Correspondence  of  Joseph  Priestley,  ed.    J.  T.  Rutt, 
Vol.  I.  p.  64. 


1 1 8  The  Rise  and  Progress 

it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  throughout  England.  And, 
finally,  the  growth  of  a  new  idea  about  education  (an 
idea  which  still  persists)  may  perhaps  be  traced  to  this 
work  of  Priestley — the  idea  of  the  necessity  of  a 
Dissenting  education  for  lay  Dissenters.  Priestley 
certainly  made  the  curriculum  suitable  for  la\Tiien 
outside  the  learned  professions,  and  by  so  doing,  he 
enlarged  the  borders  of  the  Dissenting  academies,  and 
probably  hastened  the  expression  of  what  may  have 
been  felt  before — the  need  of  a  Dissenting  education 
for  Dissenters  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  what  in  1662  was 
a  makeshift,  an  adaptation  to  changing  circumstances, 
became,  about  1800,  a  necessity.  Expression  is  given 
to  this  idea  in  a  letter  on  the  '  Necessity  of  a  Dissenting 
education  for  Lay  Dissenters  '  from  '  A  friend  to  the 
permanence  of  Unitarian  Dissent '  in  the  Monthly 
Repository  for  1812^.  This  may  not,  of  course,  have 
been  the  first  time  the  idea  was  expressed ;  but  it  was 
one  of  the  earliest  expressions  of  it. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  year  after  Priestley  went 
to  Warrington  the  academy  had  to  seek  larger  premises. 
A  new  academy  and  houses  for  the  tutors  were  built, 
and  this  undertaking  involved  the  Trustees  in  a  debt 
of  almost  £2000.  This  difficulty  was  increased  by  the 
gradual  dropping  off  of  the  promised  subscriptions. 
This,  suggests  the  writer  in  the  Monthly  Repository 
quoted  above,  was  due  partly  to  the  quarrel  between 
Dr  Taylor  and  the  Trustees  and  partly  to  the  somewhat 
natural  apathy  of  the  subscribers,  to  whom  no  account 
of  the  annual  expenditure  was  sent  and  who  were 
probably  ignorant,  not  only  of  the  manner  in  which 

1  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  x.  p.  286. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       119 

their  money  was  spent,  but  also  of  the  work  the  academy 
was  doing.  The  lack  of  funds  prevented  adequate 
salaries  being  paid  to  the  tutors,  and  several  of  them, 
because  of  actual  necessity,  had  to  seek  other  work. 
This  was  the  reason  of  Priestley's  removal  to  Leeds 
in  1767,  and  it  was  also  the  reason  for  Mr  Seddon's 
undertaking  to  give  various  lectures,  and  for  the  offers 
from  other  tutors  to  take  extra  work.  New  regula- 
tions and  one  or  two  changes  made  in  the  administration 
in  1767  throw  light  upon  the  discipline  of  the  academy. 
The  account^  is  as  follows  :  '  To  remove  all  danger  of 
dissatisfaction  with  any  of  the  tutors,  a  person  uncon- 
nected with  the  conduct  of  any  branch  of  education 
was  engaged  to  provide  the  commons  for  the  students, 
and  a  regular  code  of  laws  was  drawn  up  (a  printed 
copy  given  to  each  student,  who  was  explicitly  to 
promise  obedience).  The  Trustees  appointed,  in  the 
person  of  Mr  Seddon,  a  Rector  Academiae,  whose 
particular  ofhce  it  should  be  to  superintend  the  discipline 
and  morals  of  the  students ....  An  exact  weekly  register 
was  to  be  read  over  by  the  Rector  every  Saturday 
afternoon  publicly  before  all  students  and  such  repri- 
mands and  admonitions  to  be  given  by  him  and  the 
tutors  as  to  them  should  seem  necessary. . .  .the  Tutor 
is  to  proceed  to  appoint  the  delinquents  a  proper 
exercise  and  on  no  account  to  dispense  with  the  per- 
formance of  it.'  A  report,  in  the  case  of  the  delinquents, 
was  to  be  sent  once  a  quarter  to  the  parents  or  guardians, 
and  if  these  measures  did  not  suffice  expulsion  was  to 
follow.  After  Mr  Seddon's  death  Mr  Enfield,  who  had 
been  appointed  Tutor  in  Belles  Lettres  in  1770  and  had 

*  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  vm.  p.  427. 


I20  The  Rise  and  Progress 

volunteered  to  take  Mathematics  after  George  Walker 
left  in  1774,  became  Rector.  He  was  quite  in  accord 
with  the  new  methods,  and  as  his  Speaker  and 
Exercises  in  Elocution  testify,  was  as  anxious  as 
Aikin  and  Priestley  to  train  the  students  in  the  use  of 
their  mother  tongue.  He  continued  the  special  Saturday 
morning  class,  and  *  in  order  to  encourage  among  the 
students  at  large  an  alacrity  to  engage  in  voluntary 
exercises,  he,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Dr  Aikin, 
Junior  (who  settled  at  Warrington  as  a  surgeon,  and 
continued  the  course  of  lectures  in  anatomy,  physiology, 
chemistry  etc.),  promoted  the  formation  of  societies  or 
clubs  for  improvement  in  elocution  and  composition. 
They  both  became  members  and  took  turns  in  sub- 
mitting to  general  discussion,  essays  of  their  own.' 

During  all  this  time  the  academy  was  in  debt  and 
the  number  of  students  gradually  decreased,  until  in 
1783,  it  having  been  decided  to  open  a  new  academy 
in  Manchester,  the  Warrington  Academy,  which  had 
done  such  magnificent  work  for  about  five- and- twenty 
years,  was  closed.  The  academy  in  Manchester,  called 
*  Manchester  New  College,'  was  closely  connected  with 
the  Warrington  Academy.  The  Warrington  library 
was  transferred  to  Manchester ;  the  first  Principal, 
Dr  Barnes,  was  trained  at  Warrington  ;  and  the  second. 
Rev.  G.  Walker  had  been  tutor  there. 

Though  at  different  times  situated  in  various  places 
(Manchester,  York,  Manchester,  London,  Oxford) 
Manchester  New  College  has  had  an  uninterrupted 
existence  and  is  now  represented  by  its  lineal  descendant, 
Manchester  College,  Oxford.  Until  1853  it  remained 
an  institution  for  training  both  ministers  and  laymen 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       121 

— since  then,  its  work  has  been  theological  only. 
Manchester  College  has  now  the  old  Warrington  library 
and  the  minutes  of  the  Trustees.  The  Warrington  win- 
dow in  the  present  library  commemorates  the  connec- 
tion between  the  two  institutions.  Manchester  College 
claims  descent  not  only  from  Chorlton's  Academy  (as 
stated  in  the  Victoria  County  History  of  Lancashire)  but 
also  from  Frankland's  Academy  at  Rathmell^.  For 
this  claim  there  is  no  justification  whatever.  Even  if 
it  be  allowable  to  group  together,  as  in  the  appendix 
referred  to,  Rathmell,  Chorlton's,  Whitehaven,  Bolton 
and  Kendal  as  the  Northern  Academy  (there  was  really 
no  connection  between  Chorlton's  and  Whitehaven  or 
between  Bolton  and  Kendal),  it  is  not  possible  to  regard 
Warrington,  which  was  an  entirely  new  foundation,  as 
descended  from  these  earlier  academies. 

It  seems  natural  that  the  first  big  attempt  to  give 
a  '  business  education  '  should  have  been  made  in  the 
district  most  influenced  by  the  i8th  century  develop- 
ment of  industry.  A  similar  attempt  was  made  in  the 
south-west  of  England  and  seems  to  have  been  on 
the  whole  successful.  The  West  of  England  Academy 
situated  at  Taunton  1672-1759  (Period  I,  No.  17)  was 
closed  on  the  removal  of  the  last  Tutor,  Dr  Amory,  to 
London.  After  he  had  gone  the  Nonconformists  of  the 
district  decided  to  establish  '  a  seminary  not  for  the 
ministry  alone  but  also  for  other  learned  professions 
and  for  civil  hfe.'  A  house  in  Exeter  was  given 
and  the  library  from  Taunton  removed  to  the  new 
academy,   which   was   placed   under  the   direction  of 

^  See  appendix  on  Ancestry  of  Manchester  College  in  Proceedings- 
and  A  ddresses  on  the  Opening  of  Manchester  College,  Oxford. 


122  The  Rise  and  Progress 

Samuel  Merivale,  who  had  been  under  Doddridge  at 
Northampton. 

The  MS.  account  of  academies  in  Dr  WilUams' 
Library  gives  the  total  number  of  students  at  Exeter 
as  ninety-three.  Among  those  whose  caUing  is  given 
are 

6  attorneys  or  barristers. 
4  ministers^. 

7  physicians. 

24  merchants  or  '  trade.' 

7  navy  or  navy  office  men. 

13  esquires. 

2  apothecaries. 

3  army  men. 

This  academy  therefore  aimed  at  supplying  the  broad, 
modern  education  given  at  Warrington,  as  also  did  the 
'  less  literary  seminary  '  started  about  the  same  time 
in  London. 

This,  no  doubt,  does  not  complete  the  list  of  institu- 
tions working  on  the  same  lines.  Among  the  Quakers 
and  other  Nonconformist  bodies  there  were  in  all 
probability  similar  plans  put  into  execution  during  the 
same  period.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  just  when  this 
further  and  very  important  development  was  contem- 
plated the  academies  forgot  the  breadth  of  view  with 
which  they  had  started  and  began  to  require  from  their 
students  acceptance  of  definite  creeds.  It  was  probably 
owing  to  this  departure  from  their  original  practice 

^  A  list  in  the  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  xii.,  is  different;  12 
ministers  are  mentioned  and  only  49  names  are  given. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies       123 

that  the  academies  gradually  decUned.  As  the  i8th 
century  closed  they  seem  to  have  become  institutions 
more  bent  upon  giving  a  training  in  the  principles 
of  particular  Nonconformist  bodies  rather  than  upon 
giving  the  best  liberal  education  obtainable  at  the 
time,  with  the  result  that  they  no  longer  offered  so 
striking  a  contrast  to  the  other  educational  systems  of 
their  day. 


Ill 


THE   PLACE   OF  THE   DISSENTING   ACADEMIES   AMONG 
THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEMS   IN   ENGLAND 

Beginning  at  the  time  when  the  Uniformity  Legisla- 
tion was  undermining  the  existing  school  system  built 
up  by  Elizabeth  and  the  early  Stuarts  on  such  remnants 
of  the  old  system  as  survived  the  ravages  of  Henry  VIII 
and  Edward  VI,  the  academies  were  the  result  of  an 
effort  to  give  education  where  it  was  withheld.  At 
first,  merely  an  expedient  of  the  moment,  they,  later, 
became  a  definite  and  necessary  part  of  the  educational 
machinery  of  their  day.  Differing  from  all  other 
centres  of  learning — unique  both  in  aim  and  accom- 
plishment— they  constitute  a  separate  educational 
system — an  educational  system,  moreover,  which  de- 
serves no  mean  place  among  the  various  systems  of 
this  country. 

Though  comparatively  small,  the  academies  were 
thoroughly  active.  Their  tutors  were  first-rate  men  ; 
all  of  them  real  students  who  gave  themselves  whole- 
heartedly to  the  work  they  had  in  hand.  Such  men 
would  make  great  demands  upon  their  students,  and 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  discipline  was  main- 
tained and  that  measures  were  taken  to  secure  honest 
work. 


Importance  of  Dissenting  Academies  125 

The  academical  system  of  education  was  short- 
lived— a  '  distributary  '  which,  a  little  further  down  the 
course,  returned  to  the  main  river.  But  the  '  distri- 
butary '  accomplished  much,  not  only  fertilising  the 
land  through  which  it  passed,  but  after  its  return 
purifying  the  main  stream  and  quickening  its  sluggish 
flow. 

The  predominating  influence  of  i8th  century  thought 
was  Rationalism,  and  the  academies,  Puritan  and 
Realistic  as  they  were,  were  naturally  much  affected 
thereby.  Discussions  which  were  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  a  belief  in  an  appeal  to  reason  played  an 
important  part  in  the  academies,  and  indeed  so  much 
importance  was  attached  not  only  to  the  weekly 
disputations  but  to  the  impromptu  discussions  after 
lectures  and  to  those  in  the  students'  own  rooms  that 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  with  many  tutors  the 
aim  was  rather  to  cultivate  sound  judgment  than  to 
impart  information.  In  one  of  his  essays^  Mark 
Pattison,  writing  of  the  period  1688  -1830,  says :  '  In  that 
Age  higher  education  acquired  its  practical  aim,  an  aim 
in  which  the  development  of  the  understanding  and 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  are  considered  secondary 
objects  to  the  formation  of  the  sound  secular  judgment 
of  the  "  scholar  and  the  gentleman  "  of  the  old  race  of 
schoolmasters.'  It  is  in  the  academies  that  this  new 
practical  aim  is  first  seen.  The  writings  of  Locke  were 
widely  read  in  the  academies,  and  undoubtedly  exercised 
a  tremendous  influence  there.  The  result  of  these 
discussions  and  of  this  aim  was  that  academy-trained 
men  took  a  foremost  part  in  the  controversies  of  the 

'^  Essays,  Vol.  ii.  p.  13. 


126  Educational  Importance 

day.  Two  of  the  greatest  defenders  of  Christianity, 
Chandler  and  Butler,  against  the  attacks  of  the  Deists, 
were  students  in  a  Dissenting  Academy.  In  his 
Studies  Subsidiary  to  Butler,  Mr  Gladstone  says :  *  All 
the  theology  of  Butler's  Analogy  is  derived  straight 
from  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  ends,  as  well  as  begins, 
with  them.  Butler  never  but  once  quotes  a  theologian, 
and  that  only  in  one  of  the  notes.  With  regard  to 
the  exclusiveness  of  his  habit  of  quoting  from  Holy 
Scriptures  it  seems  probable  that  his  education  as  a 
Presbyterian  Dissenter  may  have  done  much  to  form 
the  habit  of  his  mind^.' 

Besides  theological  writers  the  academies  trained 
preachers  who  could  afterwards  deal  with  controverted 
points,  and  certainly  this  freedom  of  discussion  was 
partly  responsible  for  the  spread  of  Unitarianism.  The 
non-theological  students  also,  in  various  walks  of  life, 
gave  expression  day  by  day  to  ideas  which  had  been 
formed  under  the  influence  of  the  Dissenting  education 
they  had  received.  Among  these  the  influence  of  Defoe 
was  the  greatest,  and  though  it  cannot  be  claimed  that 
either  his  general  literature  or  his  pamphlet-writing 
was  due  to  his  academy  education,  nevertheless  each 
would  no  doubt  have  been  different  had  he  been 
educated,  say,  at  Oxford. 

The  influence  of  the  academies  on  English  thought 
and  life  as  a  whole  was  that  of  a  modified  Puritanism. 
In  general  they  stood  for  independence  of  thought,  but 
at  the  same  time  objected  to  freedom  of  action,  that  is, 
many  of  them  looked  far  more  askance  at  departure 
from  received  Puritan  custom  in  small  details  of  conduct 

*  Studies  Subsidiary  to  Butler,  p.  io8. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies      127 

than  at  the  acceptance  of  heterodox  opinions.  In  spite 
of  much  deplorable  narrowness,  their  firm  stand  for 
broad  principles,  their  sober  earnestness  and  their  high 
moral  tone  had,  to  say  the  least,  a  salutary  effect  upon 
the  country. 

But  in  addition  to  exerting  this  general  Puritan 
influence  they  made  a  very  definite  impression  on  edu- 
cation in  particular.  In  this  connection  probably  the 
most  important  statement  that  can  be  made  about  them 
is  that  they  developed,  that  throughout  the  whole  course 
of  their  existence  they  steadily  advanced.  The  sig- 
nificance of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  other  educational 
systems  show  no  development  whatever — that  they 
were  moreover  not  merely  at  a  standstill  but  were 
steadily  declining.  Abundant  and  conclusive  proof 
of  this  is  found  whenever  reliable  reference  is  made  to 
the  condition  of  education  in  the  grammar  schools  or 
Universities  in  the  i8th  century.  Every  historian  of 
the  Universities  or  of  the  public  schools  when  dealing 
with  the  period  following  the  Restoration  writes  of  '  the 
decay  which  became  so  evident  in  the  middle  of  the 
i8th  century,'  of  the  period  '  at  which  the  Univer- 
sities reached  the  lowest  depths  of  attainment  and 
discipline.' 

Writing  of  St  Paul's  School,  Mr  M.  F.  J.  McDonnell 
says :  '  The  intellectual  blight  which  in  the  i8th  century 
fell  over  Oxford  and  Cambridge  and  many  of  the  pubhc 
schools,  did  not  leave  St  Paul's  unaffected^,'  and 
Mr  A.  F.  Leach  says  that  though  very  successful 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  owing  probably 
to  Charles  IPs  plan  of  building  a  palace  at  Winchester, 

»  History  of  St  Paul's  School,  M.  F.  J.  McDonnell,  p.  296. 


128  Educational  Importance 

the  school  there  sank  in  the  i8th  century  to  the  '  lowest 
depths  of  depression^.'  The  decay  began  with  the 
reaction  against  Puritanism  at  the  Restoration — a 
reaction  as  marked  in  the  schools  and  Universities  as 
at  the  Court.  All  that  savoured  of  Puritanism  was 
out  of  fashion — devotion  to  learning  no  less  than 
abhorrence  of  pleasure-seeking. 

In  his  description  of  Oxford  after  1660  Antony  Wood 
shows  clearly  that  it  was  held  to  be  a  point  of  honour 
to  make  everything  as  different  as  possible  from  what 
had  obtained  during  the  '  Interval!.'  This  was  seen 
not  only  in  such  matters  as  the  return  to  '  May-games, 
morrises,  re  veils  etc'  so  loathed  by  the  '  precise  party,' 
but  in  the  altering  of  University  regulations  ;  in  the 
discontinuing  of  many  lectures  and  in  an  exaggerated 
mode  of  life  which  hated  lectures,  disputations  and 
books  and  delighted  in  coffee  houses,  gossiping  and 
plays.  '  Till  the  Act  of  Conformity  was  published,' 
writes  Wood,  *  the  Presbyterian  preachers  laboured 
much  to  keep  their  disciples  together  and  to  strive  by 
their  fluent  praying  and  preaching  to  make  that  way 
used  by  the  prelaticall  party  ridiculous.  And  reaUy, 
had  not  the  said  Act  taken  place,  which  drew  over  very 
many  to  their  [i.e.  the  prelaticall,  the  Church)  party, 
they  would  have  found  themselves  much  weakened.' 
After  the  Conformity  Legislation,  however,  the  In- 
dependents and  Presbyterians  had  to  leave  the 
Universities,  and  Wood  goes  on  to  describe  the  state 
of  things  in  Oxford  which  ensued.  '  They  seldom 
preached ....  which  made  many  think  they  would  not 
venter  to  do  it  for  feare  they  should  be  disrellisht  and 

^  A  History  of  Winchester  College,  A.  F.  Leach,  p   367. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies      1 29 

find  not  that  applause  which  the  Presbyterians  and 
those  educated  in  the  Intervall  did.'  This  refers  to 
the  services  at  St  Mary's.  The  actual  work  of  the 
Universities  was  discontinued  too :  '  As  the  lectures  of 
Divinity  were  neglected,  so  those  of  the  Civill  Law  and 
what  was  done  at  all,  was  by  a  deputy.  The  Medicine 
likewise  was  neglected ....  and  as  for  the  Greek  lecture 

the  reader  thereof read  scarce  one  lecture  from  this 

year  till  about  1664I.'  As  a  matter  of  fact  in  1660  the 
Church  returned  to  her  own,  and  having  defined  her 
borders  and  placed  those  outside  her  communion  under 
civil  disabilities  she  settled  down  in  the  firm  conviction 
that  the  House  of  Stuart  once  more  on  the  throne, 
everything  would  go  well.  The  majority  of  the  country 
clergy  were  fox-hunting  squires  who  cared  nothing  for 
learning  and  who  therefore  made  no  demands  upon  the 
Universities.  It  was  not  long  before  those  who  required 
a  sound  education  went  either  to  the  Dissenting 
Academies  or  to  foreign  Universities — Oxford  and 
Cambridge  were  of  no  use.  In  his  Studies  in  Oxford 
History  chiefly  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  Green  gives 
an  account  of  life  at  Oxford  which  was  an  '  imitation 
of  High  Life  in  London.'  '  Education,'  he  writes, '  may 
be  found  anywhere  save  in  the  lecture-room^.'  The 
writings  of  i8th  century  men  acquainted  with  the 
Universities  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  general  opinion 
about  them.  Chesterfield,  writing  to  his  son,  1749, 
said  that  Cambridge  '  is  sunk  into  the  lowest 
obscurity  and  the    existence    of    Oxford    would    not 

^  Life  and  Times  of  Antony  Wood,  Clark,  Vol.  I.  pp.  360,  361. 
*  Studies   in  Oxford  History  chiefly   in   the  Eighteenth  Century 
(Oxf.  Hist.  Soc),  J.  R.  Green,  p.  30. 

P.  D.  A.  Q 


130  Educational  Importance 

be  known  if  it  were  not  for  the  treasonable  spirit 
publicly  avowed  and  often  excited  there.'  Gibbon's 
censure  of  Magdalen  and  indeed  of  the  whole  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  is  well  known.  There  is  probably 
little  doubt  that  his  statements  were  exaggerated  and 
that  the  condition  of  the  College  and  of  the  University 
was  not  so  appalling  as  it  appears  in  his  pages,  but 
Gibbon  was  by  no  means  the  only  man  who,  looking 
back  on  his  career  at  Oxford,  was  constrained  to  admit 
that  he  had  done  little  or  no  work,  and  what  is  more 
important,  that  the  University  had  demanded  practi- 
cally nothing  from  him.  Adam  Smith,  at  Balliol  from 
1740-46,  says  he  sought  in  vain  for  the  proper  means 
of  being  taught  the  sciences  which  it  is  '  the  proper 
business  of  these  incorporate  bodies  to  teach.'  Southey 
was  told  by  one  of  his  tutors  that  if  he  had  any  studies 
of  his  own  he  had  better  pursue  them,  '  for  you  won't 
learn  anything  from  my  lectures,  sir.'  While  at  Oriel, 
Butler,  who  was  acquainted  with  serious  lectures  at 
Tewkesbury  Academy  and  with  the  voluntary,  strenu- 
ous work  of  the  students,  wrote :  '  we  are  obliged  to 
mis-spend  so  much  time  in  attending  frivolous  lectures 
and  unintelligible  disputations  that  I  am  quite  tired 
out  with  such  a  disagreeable  way  of  trifling.'  Many 
writers  refer  to  the  worse  than  useless  Latin  disputations 
which  continued  in  the  Universities  till  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century,  and  at  Oriel  one  a  week  was  required 
until  1857  •  Undergraduates  were  in  the  habit  of 
memorising  '  strings,'  as  lists  of  questions  and  answers 
composing  a  dispute  were  called,  in  readiness  for  their 
'  determination  '  for  the  B.A.  degree.  These  strings 
were  handed  down  from  one  generation  of  students  to 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies      1 3 1 

another,  and  many  who  used  them  had  no  idea  of  the 
meaning  of  the  Latin  which  they  '  declaimed^.' 

When  the  Honours  Schools  were  instituted  (1800) 
Sidney  Smith  wrote :  '  If  Oxford  is  become  at  last 
sensible  of  the  miserable  state  to  which  it  was  reduced, 
as  everybody  else  was  out  of  Oxford,  and  if  it  is  making 
serious  efforts  to  recover  from  the  degradation  into 
which  it  was  plunged  a  few  years  past,  the  good  wishes 
of  every  respectable  man  must  go  with  it.'  These 
efforts  at  reform  were  not  made  until  the  end  of  the 
i8th  century.  '  If  1700  witnessed  the  University's 
greatest  inactivity  and  degradation,  1800  saw  it  begin- 
ning that  system  of  education  which  led  the  way  to 
higher  and  nobler  intellectual  efforts^  ' 

Before  1800  there  had  been,  practically  speaking, 
no  attempt  at  reform.  In  his  Vindication  of  Magdalen 
College  from  the  Aspersions  of  Mr  Gibbon  the  Rev. 
James  Hurdie  gives  the  work  required  of  an  under- 
graduate in  that  college,  about  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  century,  for  '  collections  '  or  term-end  examina- 
tions. '  In  1st  year  he  must  be  proficient  in,  the  ist  term, 
Sallust  and  characters  of  Theophrastus ;  2nd  term, 
Vergil  Aen.  i-vi,  first  3  books  of  Zenophon's  Ana- 
basis ;  3rd  term,  Aen.  last  vi  books.  Anabasis,  the 
last  IV ;  4th  Term,  The  Gospels  of  St  Matthew  and 
St  Mark^.'  The  only  change  in  the  next  three  years  is 
in  the  set  books  and  in  the  addition  of  Greek  authors. 
There  was,  therefore,  no  examination  in  an5rthing  but 
classics,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Latin  and  Greek 

*  See  account  in  Reminiscences  of  Oxford  (Oxf.  Hist.  Soc). 

*  Studies  in  Oxford  History  chiefly  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
Green,  p.  240. 

'  Reminiscences  of  Oxford  (Oxf.  Hist.  Soc),  p.  136. 

9—2 


132  EdMcatioital  Importance 

still  occupied  most  of  an  undergraduate's  time.  It  is 
true  that  some  attention  was  given  to  logic  and  ethics 
and  also  to  geometry  and  physics,  but  the  work  done 
seems  to  have  been  very  slight.  Letters  from  Henry 
Fleming,  an  undergraduate  at  Queen's,  who  entered  in 
July  1678,  show  the  kind  of  work  he  was  doing.  In 
September  1678  he  wrote :  '  My  tutor  reads  to  me  once 
for  the  most  part  every  day  and  sometimes  twice  in 
Sanderson's  Logick^,  which  booke  is  all  he  reads  to  me 
as  yet  wherein  I  have  read  two  of  ye  first  bookes  and 
part  of  ye  third.  And  in  spaire  hours  from  Logick  I 
read  Lucius  Florus,  Sallus  and  such  histories,  out  of 
which  I  write  collections.  And  for  exercise  I  make 
none  yet,  but  such  as  all  ye  scholars  make  which  is 
verses  every  Saturday  during  ye  terme  and  sometimes 
declames^.'  In  May  1679  he  tells  his  father  that  having 
read  all  Sanderson's  Logick  he  has  to  begin  Ethicks  and 
that  in  the  afternoon  he  will  continue  Latin  histories. 
On  Dec.  ist  of  that  year  he  writes :  '  My  tutor  reads  to 
me  now  a  compendium  of  Geometry  having  done  with 
Logick  and  Ethicks^.'  A  compendium  of  'physicks' 
was  begun  in  Aug.  1680. 

From  a  comparison  of  the  Universities  and  academies 
it  is  clear  that  while  the  former  continued  to  give  an 
essentially  classical  education,  the  academies  paid  more 
and  more  attention  to  science  and  to  modern  languages 
and  later  to  'commercial'  subjects.  In  other  words, 
the  Universities  and  academies  differed  fundamentally 
in  their  opinion  as  to  what  constituted  a  '  Uberal ' 

^  This  was  of  course  in  Latin. 

*  The  Flemings  in  Oxford  (Oxf.  Hist.  See.),  Vol.  I.  p.  262. 

*  Ibid.  p.  304. 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies      133 

education.  The  Universities  held  that  the  more  educa- 
tion was  removed  from  the  ordinary  activities  of  Ufe, 
the  more  Uberal  it  was  ;  that  hberal  or  '  culture  ' 
studies  were  those  which  were  if  not  useless,  at  least 
definitely  non-utilitarian.  Moreover,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Ciceronianism,  the  '  culture  '  studies  did  not 
include  the  broad,  literary  study  advocated  by  the 
Renaissance  humanists,  but  merely  the  narrow,  pedantic 
training  in  classics  and  formal  logic.  However  anxious 
a  few  enthusiasts  might  be  to  introduce  reforms,  there 
was  always  a  sufficiently  strong  majority  in  the  Uni- 
versities to  ensure  the  continuance  of  the  traditional 
methods.  As  we  have  seen,  the  earliest  attempts  at 
reform  were  made  in  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries,  but 
though  Savile,  Lucas,  Camden  and  others  founded 
professorships  the  general  attitude  of  the  Universities 
remained  unchanged.  Indeed  the  history  of  the  Uni- 
versities even  during  the  19th  century  shows  that 
though  definitely  utilitarian  subjects  had  been  pre- 
scribed, it  had  very  often  been  possible  for  the  professors, 
to  whom  the  framing  of  the  syllabuses  had  been  left,  to 
make  the  work  done  in  those  subjects  so  narrow  and 
pedantic  as  to  defeat  the  end  the  reformers  had  in  view. 
In  other  words,  the  spirit  in  the  Universities  has  remained 
practically  unchanged  ;  much  of  the  work  is  pedantic 
still.  It  is  true  that  now  Humanistic  Studies  such  as 
English  Literature  and  History  have  a  definite  place, 
yet  the  work  is  often  so  detailed  and  specialised  as  to 
be  anything  but  humanistic  in  spirit.  The  academies 
on  the  other  hand  held  that  for  an  education  to  be 
liberal  it  was  imperative  that  it  should  be  in  touch  with 
life  and  should  therefore  include  as  many  utilitarian 


134  Educational  Importance 

subjects  as  possible.  As  has  been  seen,  English  early 
/received  attention  as  also  did  French,  and  in  some 
cases  German,  Itahan  and  Spanish ;  history  and 
geography  came  to  be  quite  regularly  taught ;  while 
'  science'  in  some  academies  was  the  most  important  sub- 
ject. But  the  difference  between  the  two  educational 
systems  is  seen  not  so  much  in  the  introduction  into  the 
academies  of  '  modern '  subjects  and  methods  as  in  the 
fact  that  among  the  Nonconformists  there  was  a  totally 
different  spirit  at  work  from  that  found  in  the  Univer- 
sities. The  spirit  animating  the  Dissenters  was  that 
which  had  moved  Ramus  and  Comenius  in  France  and 
Germany  and  which  in  England  had  actuated  Bacon 
and  later  Harthb  and  his  circle.  The  academies  were 
the  first  educational  institutions  in  England  to  put  into 
practice  the  realistic  theories  which  had  found  expres- 
sion in  the  works  of  a  series  of  writers  from  Rabelais 
and  Montaigne,  Mulcaster  and  Elyot  to  Bacon  and 
Comenius,  Milton  and  Petty.  It  was  in  the  academies 
alone  that,  while  the  Universities  remained  mediaeval 
\  in  outlook,  an  attempt  was  made  to  meet  the  changing 
needs  of  the  time.  In  the  i6th  century  the  Courtly 
Academies  had  endeavoured  to  satisfy  the  demand  on 
the  part  of  the  nobility  for  an  education  which  the 
Universities  could  not  give.  In  the  i8th  century  the 
Dissenting  Academies  strove  to  satisfy  the  needs  of 
the  upper  middle  class  for  a  practical  modem  education 
which  the  Universities  made  no  effort  to  supply.  There 
is  a  further  point  of  similarity  between  these  two  types 
of  academies.  The  Dissenting  Academies  were  not  less 
successful  in  making  their  conception  of  what  con- 
stituted a  good  middle-class  education  seem  the  only 


of  the  Dissenting  Academies      135 

one  possible,  than  the  Courtly  Academies  were  in 
making  the  scholar-gentleman  ideal  fashionable.  In 
the  i8th  century  the  education  to  be  sought  was  an 
academy  education.  Moreover,  it  was  an  education 
which  was  obtainable  nowhere  but  in  these  academies. 
They  are  important  not  merely  because  they  gave  a 
new  education  but  for  the  fact  that  they  showed  the 
people  of  England  that  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to 
depend  solely  upon  the  old  institutions  for  learning. 

In  so  far  then  as  they  taught  '  modern  '  subjects, 
and  employed  the  newest  methods  advocated  by  the 
educational  reformers,  and  opened  their  doors  to  the 
*  people,'  they  exerted  a  true  realistic  influence,  and 
thus  became  the  forerunners  of  the  modern  Univer- 
sities in  our  commercial  centres.  In  this  respect,  as 
in  others,  they  may  be  compared  with  the  schools  of 
the  Pietists  in  Germany,  which  under  Francke  and  his 
followers  prepared  the  way  for  the  Realschulen,  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  just  as  the  Pietists  carried  on  the 
work  of  Comenius  in  Germany,  so  the  Dissenters  put 
into  practice  the  theories  of  Comenius'  English  followers, 
Harthb,  Milton  and  Petty. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  extent  to 
which  Locke  was  read  in  the  academies^.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  influence  of  Rationalism  and  the 
remarkable  freedom  of  inquiry  which  was  allowed  in 
the  academies  were  responsible  for  the  spread  of  Uni- 
tarianism,  and  this  led  to  the  Tutors  requiring  from 
the  students  on  entering,   subscription  to  a  definite 

^  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Locke's  writings  were  censured  in 
Oxford,  1703,  and  reading  of  the  Essay  on  Human  Understanding 
forbidden. 


136  Importance  of  Dissenting  Academies 

creed.  This  narrowing  of  their  borders,  together  with 
the  general  decUne  in  Nonconformity  towards  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  century,  was  the  cause  of  the  decay  of 
the  academies  as  centres  of  general  learning.  Those 
founded  at  the  close  of  the  century,  hke  the  new 
college  in  Hackney  in  which  Priestley  was  interested, 
and  which  was  founded  about  1788,  were  definitely 
denominational,  and  indeed  owing  to  the  influence  of 
this  Dissenting  Educational  system  there  grew  the 
idea  that  denominational  schools  for  youths  not  entering 
the  ministry  were  as  necessary  as  denominational 
colleges  designed  to  give  ministerial  training. 

Before  the  decline  of  the  academies  their  successful 
adoption  of  realistic  subjects  and  methods  had  drawn 
considerable  attention  to  the  subject  of  education. 
By  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  many  men  in 
England  had  decided  that  the  '  new  '  education  could 
be  made  to  pay.  As  a  result,  academies,  largely 
of  the  Dotheboys  Hall  type,  appeared  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  These  attempted  to  give  instruction  in 
'  science,'  arithmetic,  and  English  ;  but  cis  education 
was  coming  to  be  regarded  as  a  trade  rather  than  as  an 
art,  their  work  was  not  of  a  very  high  order.  The  work 
of  the  Dissenting  Academies,  that  of  keeping  alive  in 
England  Realism  and  of  breaking  down  the  educational 
monopoly  of  the  Universities  and  grammar  schools, 
being  accomplished,  they  ceased  to  be  a  definite  system 
and  became  part  of  the  main  stream  of  education.  In 
the  meantime,  the  effective  teaching  of  modem  subjects 
and  the  application  of  the  democratic  principle  to  edu- 
cation awaited  the  social  and  educational  awakening 
of  the  19th  century. 


APPENDIX  I 

THE    CHIEF    DISSENTING    ACADEMIES 

This  list  has  been  compiled  from  information  from  various^ 
sources,  some  of  which  are  the  ms.  account  of  Dissenting 
Ministers,  kept  at  Dr  Williams's  Library  ;  Calamy's  Account 
and  History ;  Bogue  and  Bennett's  History ;  Toulmin's 
History ;  Lives  and  Funeral  Sermons  of  various  ministers  ; 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

The  academies  given  were  Presbyterian  or  Independent; 
one,  Bristol,  No.  9,  Period  II,  was  Baptist,  and  was  probably 
the  first  Baptist  Academy — the  General  Baptist  Education 
Society  was  not  formed  untQ  1794.  The  Quaker  Schools,  and 
such  institutions  as  that  started  for  the  Methodists  by  George 
Whitefield  at  Kingswood  1740,  are  not  given.  The  dates  have 
been  carefully  examined  but  many  of  them  cannot  be  authen- 
ticated. 

Academies  of  First  Period. 

1.  Broad  Oak  {Flint)   1 690-1 706.     Tutors,  Ph.  Henry,  M.A. 

(Christ  Church,  Oxford).  He  taught  Samuel  Benion, 
who  helped  him  with  instruction  of  some  '  young 
gentlemen '  (gram,  school  and  academy).  After  P. 
Henry's  death,  1696,  Benion  continued  academical  work 
till  in  1706,  after  death  of  James  Owen,  he  removed  to 
Shrewsbury  (see  above.  No.  17). 

2.  Bromsgrove  (or  Stourbridge)  1665-1692  (?).     Tutor,  Henry 

Hickman,  B.D.,  Fellow  of  Magdalen,  Oxford  (d.  1692). 

3.  Brynllwarch,    near    Bridgend,    Glamorgan   1 668-1 697  (?). 

Tutor,  Samuel  Jones,  M.A.  (Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Jesus 
College,  Oxford).  Students,  James  Owen  (tutor,. 
Shrewsbury),  etc. 


138  Appendix  I 


4.  Coventry  1 663-1 700  (removed  1700  to  London  by  Dr  Old- 

field).  Tutors,  Dr  John  Bryan  (d.  1675),  Dr  Obadiah 
Grew  (d.  1689),  Thomas  Shewell,  M.A,  (d.  1693), 
Dr  Joshua  Oldfield,  assisted  by  Wm.  Tong. 

5.  Dartmouth  1668-1691.   TMtof,  John  Flavel,  B.A.  (d.  1691). 

Students,  only  four. 

6.  Islington  (i)  1672-1680.    Tutor,  Ralph  Button,  M.A.,  B.D. 

(Exeter,  Oxford),  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Merton  (?), 
Oxford,  1642,  Professor  of  Geometry  in  Gresham 
College,  1647,  Canon  of  Christ  Church  and  University 
orator  (d.  1680).  Students,  Sir  J.  Jekyll,  lawyer, 
etc. 

7.  Islington  (2)  1672-1707  (?).    Migratory  (Woodford  Bridge, 

Essex  (plague),  Battersea,  Wimbledon,  etc.).  Tutors, 
Thomas  DooUttle,  M.A.  (Pembroke,  Camb.),  assisted 
by  Thomas  Vincent,  M.A.  (Christ  Church,  Oxford), 
T.  Rowe  (?).  Students,  Calamy,  Kerr,  M.D.  (tutor 
Highgate  and  Bethnal  Green),  Matthew  Henry,  etc. 

8.  Knell  {Radnorshire)    (?)  i675-(?).      Tutor,   John  Weaver. 

Students,  Samuel  Jones,  Tutor  of  Tewkesbury,  etc. 

9.  Li«co/ni  668-1 680.    rMto^-,  Edward  Reyner,  M.A.  (d.  1680). 

10.  Mill  Hill  (?)-i70i  (?).     Tutor,  Richard  Swift  (d.  1701). 

11.  Nettlebed  (Oxon)  1666-1697.     Tutor,  Thomas  Cole,  M.A. 

(Christ  Church,  Oxford).  John  Locke  was  a  student  of 
Cole's  before  his  ejectment. 

12.  Newington  Green  (i)  1665  (?)  to  about  1706.     Migratory 

(Little  Britain,  Clapham).  Tutors,  Theophilus  Gale, 
M.A.,  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford  (d.  1678). 
T.  Rowe  (d.  1706).  Students,  Isaac  Watts,  D.D.  (Edin.), 
Dr  J.  Evans,  Daniel  Neal,  Henry  Grove  (Tutor  at 
Taunton),  J.  Hughes  (poet  and  dramatist),  Josiah  Hort 
(conformed — Archbishop  of  Tuam),  etc. 

13.  Newington  Green  (2)  1667  (?)  to  about  1706.  Tutors,  Charles 

Morton,  M.A.  (Wadham  College,  Oxford).  In  1685  he 
went  to  New  England,  he  was  succeeded  by  Stephen 
Lobb;  Wm.  Wickens  (Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge), 
Francis  Glasscock.  Students,  Daniel  Defoe,  Samuel 
Wesley,  Kitt,  Butterby,  Wm.  Jenkyn,  etc. 


Appendix  I  139 

14.  Nottingham  i68o-(?).     Tutors,  Ed.  Reynolds   and   John 

Whitlock,  Thos.  Hardy  (same  academy?). 

15.  Rathmell  1669-1698.     Migratory  (Natland,  Kendal,  etc.). 

Tutor,  Richard  Frankland,  M. A.  (Christ's  College,  Camb.), 
assisted  by  Issot.  Students,  John  Ashe,  James  Clegg, 
M.A.,  John  Owen,  T.  JoUie  (Tutor  at  Atterchffe),  etc. 

16.  Sheriffhales  1663-1697  (closed  before  Woodhouse  went  to 

London).  Tutors,  John  Woodhouse,  assisted  by  South- 
well. Students,  Robert  Harley,  Henry  St  John,  Lord 
Foley,  Thomas  Hunt,  Benjamin  Bennett  (author  of 
Christian  Oratory). 

17.  Shrewsbury  166^-17^0  {}).    Ttttors,  Francis  Tallents,  M.A,, 

Camb.,  Fellow,  Tutor  and  Vice-President  of  Magdalen 
College  (d.  1708),  John  Bryan  (?)  (d.  1699),  James 
Owen  (d.  1706),  Samuel  Benion,  M.A.  (d.  1708),  John 
Reynolds  (d.  1727),  Dr  Gyles  (d.  1730  ?).  Students 
(under  Benion),  Latham  (tutor  at  Findem),  etc. 

18.  Sulby,nea.rWelfard,  Northampton  1680-1688.     Tutor,  John 

Shuttlewood,  B.A.  (Christ's  College,  Camb.). 

19.  Taunton    1672-1759    (when    Amory   went   to   London). 

Tutors,  Matthew  Warren,  Robert  Darch,  Stephen  James, 
Henry  Grove,  Thos.  Amory,  D.D.  Students,  Thomas 
and  John  Wright  of  Bristol,  etc. 

20.  Tubney  1668-1699.     Tutor,  D.  H.  Langley  (d.  1697). 

21.  Wapping  1675  (?)  to  1 680-1.    Tutor,  Ed.  Veal,  M.A.  (Christ 

Church, Oxford) .  Students, SamuelWesley,  1 678-1 680, etc. 

22.  Whitchurch  1668-1680  (?).     Tutor,  J.  Maulden  (d.  1680). 

23.  Wickhambrook    1670-1696  (?)    (when    tutor    removed    to 

Bishop's  Stortford).  Tutor,  Samuel  Cradock,  B.D. 
(Emmanuel  College,  Cajnb.).  Students,  Edmund  Calamy, 
D.D.,  etc. 

Academies  of  Second  Period. 
I.  Atterchffe  1691-1744.  Tutors,  Timothy  Jollie  (d.  1714), 
John  De  la  Rose,  J.  Wadsworth  (?).  Students,  Nicholas 
Saunderson,  J.  Bowles  (Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland), 
Jennings  of  Kibworth  Academy,  Samuel  Price,  Thomas 
Bradbury,  etc. 


140  Appendix  I 

1.  Alcester  (?)-i72o  (?).  Joseph  Porter,  on  whose  death 
students  were  removed  to  Stratford-on-Avon  (see  below, 
No.  29). 

3.  Abergavenny    i757-(?).      Fund    Board    withdrew    their 

support  from  the  Carmarthen  Academy  and  established 
one  of  their  own.  Migratory  (Oswestry,  Wrexham, 
LlanfylUn,  Newton),  Brecon  College  since  1839.  Tutors^ 
David  Jardine  (d.  1766),  Benj.  Davis,  D.D.  (d.  1787),  Ed. 
Williams,  Jenkin  Lewis, George  Lewis,  D.D.  (d.  1822),  etc. 

4.  Bedworth  i69o-(?).  Tutors,  Julius  Saunders  and  John  Kirk- 

patrick. 

5.  Bethnal  Green  i68o(?)-i696(?).  Migratory  (Highgate, Clerk- 

enwell).  Tutors,  John  Kerr,  M.D.  Students,  Samuel 
Palmer,  etc. 

6.  Bridgenorth  1726-1740  (?).    Tutor,  Fleming,  who  removed 

to  Stratford-on-Avon  (No.  29)  when  John  Alexander 
went  to  Dublin. 

7.  Bridgewater  (?)-i747.     Tutor,  John  Moore,  M.A.  (d.  1747). 

8.  Bolton  1723-1729.     Tutor,  John  Barclay,  M.A. 

9.  Bristol  ij2o-{?).    First  Baptist  Academy.    TMtor,  Foskett, 

continued  the  work  of  Ed.  Terril  and  Caleb  Tope. 

10.  Carmarthen  1700-present  day.     Migratory  (Llwynllwyd, 

Haverford  West,  etc.,  Carmarthen,  and  probably  con- 
tinuation of  Brynllwarch  :  see  No.  3,  Period  I).  Tutors, 
Wm.  Evans,  Thos.  Perrot  (under  whom  were  about  150 
pupils)  (d.  1733  or  1734),  Vavasor  Griffiths,  Evans  Davis, 
etc. 

11.  Exeter  {dibout)  ijoo-iy22.  rMtof,  Joseph  Hallet.   Academy 

declined  and  was  closed  because  of  a  subscription 
quarrel. 

12.  Findern  (?)-i754,  afterwards  at  Derby.     Tutors,  Thomas 

Hill  (d.  1720),  Samuel  Latham,  M.D.  (d.  1754). 

13.  Gosport  i789-(?).     Tutor,  David  Bogue,  M.A.     1800  the 

Missionary  Society  placed  their  missionaries  under 
Bogue  for  preparation. 

14.  Gloucester  i696-(?).     Tutor,  James  Forbes  (d.  1712). 

1 5 .  Hungerford  1 696-1 70 1  ( ?) .   Tutor,  Benj  amin  Robinson,  edu- 

cated at  Sheriffhales  (d.  1722  or  1724). 


Appendix  I  141 

16.  Hoxton  Square  1700-1729  (?),  removed  to  Hoxton  Square 

from  Coventry  (see  No.  4,  Period  I).  Tutors,  Joshua 
Oldfield,  D.D.,  John  Spodeman,  M.A,,  Lorimer, 
M.  Capel. 

17.  Heckmondwyke    1756,    merged    in    Rotherham    College. 

Tutors,  James  Scott   (d.   1783),   Samuel  Walker,   etc. 

18.  Idle  i8oo,  merged  in  Airedale.     Tutor,  Wm.  Vint.     1886 

Rotherham  and  Airedale  became  Yorkshire  United 
College,  Bradford. 

19.  Ipswich  i698-i734(?).     Tutor,  John  Langton  (d.  1704). 

20.  Kendal  1733-1752.     Tutor,  Dr  Caleb  Rotherham. 

2 1 .  Lyme  Regis  or  Colyton  1 690,  removed  to  Shepton  Mallet  and 

then  to  Poole.     Tutors,  John  Short,  Matthew  Towgood. 

22.  London   (various  parts)    1696-1744  supported  by  Fund 

Board.  Migratory  (Pinner,  Moorfields :  see  Newington 
Green,  No.  24,  Period  II).  Tutors,  Thos.  Goodwin,  Isaac 
Chauncey,  M. A.,  M.D.,  Thos.  Ridgley,  D.D.,  John  Eames, 
F.R.S.,  Jos.  Densham. 

23.  Manchester  1 698-1 710  (?),  countenanced  by  and  promised 

support  from  the  Lancashire  ministers.  Tutors,  John 
Chorlton  (d.  1705),  John  Conningham,  M.A.  Students, 
J.  Clegg,  etc. 

24.  Newington  Green  1 730-1 744-1 850,  established  by  King's 

Head  Society.  Migratory  (Deptford,  Stepney,  Addle 
Street  (whither  it  removed  in  1744  after  having  joined 
the  Fund  Board  Academy  [No.  22,  Period  II]),  MUe  End, 
Homerton),  now  represented  by  New  College,  London. 
Tutors,  Abraham  Taylor,  D.D.,  Samuel  Parsons,  John 
Hubbard  after  1744,  Zephaniah  Marryat,  D.D.,  John 
Conder,  D.D.,  etc.  (see  Northampton,  No.  26,  Period  II). 

25.  Newport  Pagnell  1783,  merged  in  Cheshunt  (?).     Tutors, 

W.  Bull,  J.  Bull,  M.A.,  J.  Watson,  W.  Foggart. 

26.  Northampton     171 5    (?),   represented    by    New    CoUege, 

London.  Migratory  (started  at  Kib worth  under  John 
Jennings,  moved  to  Hinkley,  Harborough,  and  in  1729 
to  Northampton.  After  1752  to  Daventry,  back  to 
Northampton,  Wymondley,  Byng  Place,  and  1850 
merged  in  New  College,  London).    Tutors,  John  Jennings 


142  Appendix  I 

(d.  1723),  Philip  Doddridge,  D.D.,  Caleb  Ashworth, 
Thos.  Robins,  Thos.  Belsham,  John  Horsey,  Wm.  Parry, 
etc. 

27.  Ottery  St  Mary  i752-(?),  started  by  Congregational  Fund 

Board,  now  represented  by  Bristol.  Migratory  (Brid- 
port,  Taunton,  Exeter,  Plymouth,  Bristol).  Tutors, 
J.  Lavington,  James  Rooker,  Thomas  Reader,  James 
Small,  etc. 

28.  Saffron  Walden  i68o-(?).     Tutor,  John  Payne,  assisted  by 

Fund  Board  when  the  latter  was  first  started. 

29.  S/yflZ/offi-ow-^DOw  1 715  (?)  at  Gloucester.    (?)  Tutors,  ^ohn. 

Alexander,  who  1729  went  to  Dublin;  John  Fleming,  who 
had  begun  an  academy  at  Bridgenorth  (1726-1727),  then 
went  to  Stratford. 

30.  Tiverton  (?)-(?).     Tutor,  John  Moor  (d.  1740). 

31.  Tewkesbury     1680     (Gloucester)     to     1719,    moved     to 

Tewkesbury  in  171 2.  Tutor,  S.  Jones  (d.  17 19  or  1720). 
Students,  Seeker,  Chandler,  Butler,  etc. 

32.  Warrington  1 700-1746.     Tutor,  Charles  Owen,  D.D.  (d. 

1746). 

33.  Wellclose  Square  1744-1785,  removed  to  Hoxton  in  1762. 

Tutors,  Samuel  M.  Savage,  D.D.,  David  Jennings,  D.D., 
Andrew  Kippis,  D.D.,  Abraham  Rees,  D.D.,  F.R.S. 

34.  Whitehaven  1710-1723.     Tutor,  Thos.  Dixon,  M.A.,  M.D. 

Students,  John  Taylor  (at  Warrington,  No.  3,  Period  III), 
Geo.  Benson,  Caleb  Rotherham.  Removed  to  Bolton 
1723-1729  (?).     (See  No.  8,  Period  II.) 

Academies  of  Third  Period. 

1 .  Exeter  1 760-1 786.     Tutors,  Samuel  Merivale,  Michah  Tow- 

good,  John  Turner,  John  Hogg,  Thos.  Jervis.  Students 
(see  Appendix  No.  V). 

2 .  London  1 76o-(  ? ) .    Tutor,  Samuel  Pike,  '  a  less  literary  semi- 

nary but  it  continued  only  for  a  few  years.' 

3.  Warrington  175  7-1 783.     Library  moved  to  Manchester 

New  College,  1783;  other  removals,  York  (1803),  Man- 
chester, London,  now  represented  by  Manchester  College, 


Appendix  II 


^^Z 


Oxford.  Tutors,  Dr  Taylor,  Dr  Aikin,  J.  Holt,  J.  Priest- 
ley, LL.D.,  Wm.  Enfield,  etc. ;  at  Manchester,  Thos. 
Barnes,  D.D.,  George  Walker,  F.R.S.,  John  Dalton, 
D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Ralph  Harrison,  etc.;  and  at 
York,  Charles  Wellbeloved,  Hugh  Kerr,  M.A.,  etc. 
Students  (see  Appendix  No.  V). 

APPENDIX  II 

COURSE  AT   KIBWORTH  UNDER  REV.   JOHN   JENNING* 

Source.  Letter  from  Ph.  Doddridge  (student)  to  Rev. 
Saunders,  1728  :  '  Our  course  of  Education  at  Kibworth  was  the 
employment  of  four  years  and  every  half  year  we  entered  upon 
a  new  set  of  studies  or  at  leeist  changed  the  time  and  order  of 
our  lectures.' 


Year 

1st 
half- 
year 


Subject 

Geometry 
or  Algebra 


Lectures 
per  week 


Notes  on  Books  and  Method 


Hebrew 
Geography 

French 
Latin 


3        Barrow's  EucUd  Book  i  and  then  started 
(a)  fundamental  opera-' 

tions,  Algebra  and      System  drawn 
arithmetic ;  >•   up     by     Jen- 

(6)  reduction  of  equa-      nings. 
tions.  / 

'  Under  every  head  we  had  demonstration 
as  well  as  practical  rules.' 
2        Bythner's  Grammar. 

I        Gordon's  Geog.     '  Lecture  only  an  exami- 
nation of  the  account  which  we  could 
give  of  the  most  remarkable  passages.' 
I        Boyer's  Grammar.  1    'Without    regarding 
I    pronunciation  with 
Familiar  phrases  [    which    Mr    Jennings 
and  dialogues.    )    was  not  acquainted.' 
I        Selections  from  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Seneca, 
(i  hr.)  etc.,  and  especially  Cicero. 

Method.  1st  to  read  Latin  according  to 
grammatical  order  of  the  words  and 
then  render  it  into  as  elegant  English 
as  we  could. 


144 


Appendix  II 


Year  Subject      Lectures  Notes  on  Books  and  Method 

per  week 

1  Latin-English,  EngUsh-Latin,  many  pass- 
(i  hr.)  ages  in  Spectator  and  Tatler,  both 

serious  and  humorous. 

2  Euclid  Books  iii,  iv,  and  vi. 


xst 

Classical 

half- 

Exercises 

year 

2nd 

Geometry 

half- 

and 

year 

Algebra 

Logic 

% 

CivU 

History 

'  We  read 
these  just  as 
we  did  Gor- 
don,' i.e.  in 
private,  and 
were  ques- 
tioned at  the 
lecture. 


Burgesdicius  in  about  six  lectures.  Mr  Jen- 
ning's  system.  '  a  great  deal  of  which 
was  taken  from  Mr  Locke.' 

Puflfendorf's  Intro,  to  Hist.'\ 
of  Europe  with  Crull's 
continuation    and   his 
History  of  Asia,  Africa 
and  America. 

History  of  England. 

Dupin's  Compendium. 

Spanheim's  Elenchus. 

King's  Constitution,  etc. 
French  2        Telemachus. 

Selections  from  Bourdeleau's  sermons. 
'  Perhaps,  if  we  had  tasted  a  greater 
variety  of  authors  it  had  better 
answered  our  end.' 

Virgil,  Horace,  Terence,  Lucretius,  Juve- 
nal, Plautus,  etc. 


Oratory  exercises.  '  Bacon's  Essays  often 
used,  and  our  exercises  were  a  kind  of 
comiment  upon  some  remarkable  sen- 
tences they  contained.' 

System  on  lever,  screw,  pulley,  wedge,  etc. 

Abridgment  of  some  of  Mr  Eames's 
lectures. 

Le  Clerc's  system. 

Theocritus,  Homer,  Pindar,  '  I  do  not 
remember  that  we  ever  read  in  our 
public  course  any  Greek  History, 
oratory  or  philosophy.' 


Latin 

I 

Poets  and 

exercises 

Hebrew 

I 

Oratory  and 

I 

exercises  of 

reading  and 

delivery 

3rd 

Mechanics 

2 

half- 

Hydro- 

2 

year 

statics 

Physics 

2 

Greek 

I 

Poets 

Appetidix  11 


145 


Year        Subject 


3rd 
half- 
year 


4th 
half- 
year 


Lectures 
per  week 


History  of 
England 
Anatomy 


Use  of 

Globes 

Astronomy 

Chronology 

Miscellanies 


Logical 
Disputations 


Pneumatology      2 


Physics 

I 

Miscellanies 

I 

JcAvish  An- 

2 

tiquities 

5th            Ethics 

2 

half- 

year 

Critics 

I 

Pneumatolo- 

I 

gised  disputation 

Notes  on  Books  and  Method 

Browne's    2   vols.,    '  which   in    the  main 

were  very  good.' 
Eames's  in  English.      '  We    took  in  the 

collateral  assistance  of  Nievwentyi:, 

Keil  and  Cheselden.' 
Jones. 


Mr    Jennings'    system    printed    amongst 

his  Miscellanies. 
Short  sketches  of  Fortification,  Heraldry, 

Architecture,  Psalmody,  Physiognomy, 

Metaphysics,  etc. 

{Disputations  in  Eng-  ),,-., 
5,  (    Neither  in  a  syllo- 

Thesis  in  Latin.  )    ^ 

'  One  of  the  class  made  the  thesis,  each  of 
the  rest  read  an  exercise  either  in 
prose  or  verse,  EngUsh  or  Latin.  I 
think  EngUsh  orations  were  the  most 
common  and  turned,  I  beUeve,  to  the 
best  account.' 

Mr  Jennings.  '  This  with  our  divinity, 
which  was  a  continuation  of  it,  was 
by  far  the  most  valuable  part  of  our 
course.  Mr  Jennings  had  bestowed  a 
vast  deal  of  thought  upon  them  and 
his  discourses  from  them  in  the  lecture 
room  were  admirable.' 


Abridgment  of  Mr  Jones's  (Tewkesbury) 
notes  on  Godwin  with  some  very 
curious  and  important  additions. 

Grotius. 

Puffendorf. 

Wollaston's  Religion  of  Nature  Delineated. 

Abridgment  of  Mr  Jones's. 


10 


146 


Appendix  II 


Year 

Subject 

Lectures 
per  week 

Notes  on  Books  and  Method 

6th 

Divinity 

3 

half- 

Christian 

I 

Sir  Peter  King's  Constitution  of  the  Primi- 

year 

Antiquities 

tive  Church  with  The  Original  Draught 
in  answer  to  it. 

Miscellanies 

I 

Homily 

I 

'  Of  a  Thursday  night.' 

7th 

Divinity 

3 

half- 

Ecclesiasti- 

I 

Dupin's  Compendium — '  very  defective  in 

year 

cal  History 

places.' 

Sermon 

I 

'  On  art  of  preaching  and  pastoral  care 
Mr  Jennings  gave  us  very  excellent 
advice,  and  some  valuable  hints  on 
the  head  of  Nonconformity.' 

Theological 

I 

Disputation 

8th 

Divinity 

I 

half- 

History  of 

I 

Spanheim's  Elenchus. 

year 

Controversies 

Miscellanies 

I 

Vol.  II — a  brief  historical  account  of 
ancient  philosophy. 

Theological 

I 

'  We  preached  this  last  half  year,  either 

Disputation 

at  home  or  abroad  as  occasion  required 

and  towards  the  beginning  of  it  were 
examined  by  a  committee  of  neigh- 
bouring ministers  to  whom  that  office 
was  assigned  at  a  preceding  general 
meeting.' 


Appendix  III  147 

APPENDIX  III 

DISCIPLINE  IN   DISSENTING  ACADEMIES 
Rules  of  Doddridge' s  Academy. 

Source.  A  History  of  Castle  Hill  Church,  Northampton, 
contains  a  copy  of  the  original  manuscript  book  now  at  New 
College,  London. 

Extracts  from  the  rules  are  given  below. 

Constitution,  Orders  and  Rules  relating  to  the  Academy  at 
Northampton  agreed  upon  by  the  Tutors  and  the  several 
members  of  it  in  December  1740  and  then  established  as  the 
future  conditions  of  Admission  into  the  Academy  or  continuance 
in  it. 

Section  I.     Of  Academical  Studies. 

1.  1st  year.  Translations  from  Latin  into  English  and 
vice  versa  as  appointed  by  the  Tutors  to  be  showed  them  at  the 
day  and  hour  appointed  and  in  the  last  three  months  of  the 
year  orations  are  to  be  exhibited  in  Latin  and  English  alter- 
nately every  Thursday  which  is  also  to  be  the  time  of  the 
following  exercises. 

2.  In  first  half  of  second  year  these  orations  are  to  be 
continued  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  each  is  in  his  turn 
to  exhibit  a  Philosophical  Thesis  or  Dissertation. 

3.  In  third  year  Ethical  Theses  or  Dissertations  are  to  be 
exhibited  weekly  as  above  and  toward  the  end  of  this  year  and 
during  the  fourth,  Theological. 

4.  The  Revolution  of  these  is  to  be  so  adjusted  that  every 
student  may  compose  at  least  six  orations.  Theses  or  Disserta- 
tions before  the  conclusion  of  his  fourth  year. 

5.  All  subjects  to  be  disputed  upon  are  to  be  given  out 
with  the  names  of  the  Respondent  and  opponent — at  least  as 
soon  as  the  Academy  meets  after  the  long  vacation  and  at 
Christmas  and,  if  possible,  before  the  vacation. 

6.  The  absence  of  the  Tutor  is  not  to  occasion  the  omission 
of  any  of  these  exercises . . .  etc. 

10 — 2 


148  Appendix  III 

7.  Exercises  are  to  be  first  written  in  a  paper  book,  then 
reviewed  and  corrected  by  one  of  the  Tutors,  after  that,  fairly 
transcribed  and  after  they  have  been  exhibited  in  the  manner 
which  shall  be  appointed,  a  fair  copy  of  them,  with  the  author's 
name  annexed,  shall  be  dehvered  to  the  Tutor. 

8.  Two  sermons  on  given  subjects  to  be  composed  by 
every  theological  student  in  his  eighth  half  year  to  be  read  over 
by  him  in  the  class  and  having  been  there  corrected  to  be 
preached  in  the  family  if  the  student  does  not  propose  preach- 
ing in  public  before  he  leave  the  Academy,  and  besides  these, 
at  least  six  schemes  of  other  sermons  on  given  texts  are  to  be 
exhibited  in  the  class  during  the  fourth  year  by  each  student. 

9.  If  any  student  continue  a  fifth  year  he  is  to  compose 
at  least  one  sermon  and  exhibit  two  schemes  every  quarter 
whether  he  do  or  do  not  preach  in  public.  Besides  which 
he  is  this  fifth  year  to  exhibit  and  defend  two  large 
Theological  theses .... 

10.  Four  classics  viz.  :  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  poet  and 
one  Greek  and  one  Latin  prose  writer  as  appointed  by  the 
Tutor  are  to  be  read  by  each  student  in  his  study  and  observa- 
tions are  to  be  written  upon  them  to  be  kept  in  a  distinct  book, 
and  communicated  to  the  Tutor  whenever  he  shall  think  fit. 

11.  Each  student  of  the  upper  class  may  be  allowed  to 
propose  a  difficult  scripture  to  the  Principal  Tutor  every 
Thursday  to  be  discussed  by  him  the  next  Thursday.  But  it 
will  be  expected  that  the  person  proposing  them  write  some 
memorandum  of  the  solution. .  .etc. 

12.  . .  .each  Theological  Pupil  will  be  expected  to  write, 
either  at  meeting  or  afterward ....  Hints  of  all  the  Sermons  he 
hears,  to  be  examined  by  the  Tutor . . .  etc. 

13.  On  the  four  Thursdays  preceding  the  long  vacation, 
the  whole  Academy  is  to  meet  at  ten  in  the  morning  and  all 
the  forenoon  is  to  be  spent  in  the  examination  of  Students .... 
And  on  the  first  of  these  days  Disputations  shall  be  held  by 
the  two  upper  classes  in  the  Presence  of  the  Juniors  that  they 
may  learn  by  example  the  method  of  Disputation . . .  etc. 

14.  In  case  of  a  total  neglect  of  preparing  an  appointed 
exercise  sixpence  is  to  be  forfeited  to  the  box .... 


Appendix  III  149 


Section  II.     Of  Attendance  on  Family  Prayer  and 
Lecture  at  appointed  times. 

1 .  Every  Student  boarding  in  the  House  is  to  be  present  at 
the  caUing  over  the  names  in  the  great  parlour  at  lo  minutes 
after  six  in  the  morning  or  to  forfeit  a  penny. 

2.  Family  Prayer  is  to  begin  in  the  morning  at  eight 
o'clock  and  in  the  evening  at  seven .  .  .  and  every  one  absenting 
himself  from  either.  .  .is  to  forfeit  two  pence. 

3.  Every  student  is  to  be  ready  for  Lecture. .  .within  five 
minutes  of  the  Hour  fixed  for  the  beginning , , .  or  to  forfeit 
two  pence,  and  if  Lecture  be  entirely  neglected  and  no  reason 
can  be  assigned  which  the  Tutor  (who  is  always  to  be  the  judge 
of  such  reasons)  shall  think  sufficient,  he  is  to  be  publicly 
reproved  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  whole  Society,  and  if  the 
neglect  be  repeated  within  a  month  he  is  to  have  some  extra- 
ordinary exercise  appointed  as  the  Tutor  shall  think  fit. 

4.  Each  Pupil,  after  he  hath  entered  on  the  second  half 
year  of  his  course,  shall  take  his  turn  at  family  prayer  in  the 
evening . . .  etc. 

5.  . .  .nor  shall  a  change  of  turns  be  permitted  without  the 
Tutor's  express  leave. 

6.  If  the  person  whose  turn  it  is  to  go  to  Prayer  in  the 
evening  absent  himself  and  have  not  procured  another  to 
officiate  for  him  he  shall  forfeit  sixpence  or  take  his  turn  twice 
together. . .etc. 

Section  III.     Of  the  Hours,  Place  and  Order  of  Meals. 

1.  The  time  of  breakfast  is  to  be  from  the  end  of  family 
prayer  till  5  minutes  before  Ten. 

2.  It  is  to  be  eaten  either  in  the  Hall  or  the  great 
parlour,  a  blessing  having  first  been  asked  by  the  senior  Pupil 
present  at  each  table  if  the  Assistant  Tutor  be  not  at  one  of 
them. 

3.  They  that  choose  tea  in  the  morning  may  either  break- 
fast with  the  Tutor  in  his  parlour,  or  at  the  other  tea  board 
in  the  great  parlour,  each,  in  that  case,  providing  his  own  tea 
and  sugar  in  a  just  proportion  as  the  company  shall  agree. 


150  Appendix  III 

4.  Dinner  is  to  be  set  on  the  table  precisely  at  two  when 
every  student  is  to  be  in  the  Hall  before  the  blessing. .  .and 
not  to  leave  the  room  till  thanks  be  returned. 

5.  Supper  is  to  be  eaten  in  the  Hall  between  the  conclusion 
of  evening  prayer  and  9  o'clock . . .  etc. 

6.  Neither  breakfcist,  dinner  nor  supper  is  to  be  carried 
into  any  room,  besides  that  appointed  for  the  family  meal, 
except  in  case  of  sickness . . .  etc. 

7.  As  making  toasts  and  butter  and  toasting  cheese  has 
been  found  to  be  more  expensive  than  can  conveniently  be 
afforded  on  the  usual  terms  here,  that  custom  is  to  be  disused 
except  by  the  Parlour  boarders. 

9 

10 

Section  IV.     Of  shutting  up  the  Gate 

AND    RETIRING   TO    BeD. 

1 .  The  gate  is  to  be  locked  every  night  at  ten  and  the  key 
is  to  be  brought  to  the  Tutor  or  his  Assistant  and  every  Pupil 
who  comes  in  after  that  time  is  to  forfeit  two  pence  for  every 
quarter  of  an  hour  that  he  hath  exceeded  ten. 

2.  If  any  one  go  out  of  the  house  without  express  per- 
mission, after  the  gate  is  locked,  he  is  to  pay  One  shilling  for 
such  offence  and  should  any  one  get  into  the  house  irregularly 
after  the  door  is  locked  he  and  each  person  assisting  him  in 
such  irregular  entry  must  expect  that  immediate  information 
will  be  sent  to  his  friends. 

3.  If  any  pupil  procure  a  key  for  the  gate  he  shall  not  only 
forfeit  it  as  soon  as  discovered  but  be  fined  two  shillings  and 
sixpence. 

4.  If  any  one  keep  a  guest  beyond  half  an  hour  past  ten 
he  shall  forfeit  for  every  quarter  of  an  hour  which  such  guest 
stays  as  if  he  had  stayed  abroad  himself. 

5.  If  any  one  stay  out  all  night  and  do  not  the  next  day 
of  his  own  accord  take  an  opportunity  of  acquainting  the 
Tutor  or  assistant  with  it  and  giving  reason  for  so  extra- 
ordinary a  conduct,  he  must  expect  that  if  it  afterward  come 
to  the  Tutor's  knowledge  an  immediate  complaint  wiU  be 


Appendix  III  151 

lodged  with  his  friends  without  any  previous  notice  taken  of  it 
to  him. 

6.  An  Account  is  to  be  brought  to  the  Tutor  every 
Saturday  morning  by  the  person  who  has  kept  the  key  the 
preceding  week,  of  every  one  who  has  been  let  in  during  that 
time  after  ten  o'clock. 

Section  V.     Rules  relating  to  the 
Chambers  and  Closets. 

I.  That  the  Chambers  and  Closets  be  chosen  by  persons 
paying  the  same  price  according  to  the  seniority  of  classes . . . 
etc. 

2 

3 

4.  That  if  Windows  be  broke,  furniture  wantonly  de- 
molished or  any  other  hurt  be  done  to  the  House  by  the  fault 
of  any  of  the  pupils  the  repair. .  .be  charged  to  the  person  by 
whom  it  is  done.  N.B.  This  extends  to  the  instruments  of  the 
apparatus  and  even  to  any  detriment  which  may  arise  to  them 
by  the  carelessness . . .  etc. 

5 

6 

Section  VI.     Rules  relating  to  the  Library. 

I.  Every  pupil  is  to  pay  a  guinea  to  the  Library  when  he 
enters  on  the  second  year  of  his  course  if  he  propose  to  go 
through  the  whole  ;  but  if  he  purpose  to  stay  only  two  years 
he  is  to  pay  but  half  a  guinea  and  that  from  the  time  he  enters 
on  the  second  half  year. 

2-10.     Ordinary  rules  for  borrowing  and  returning  books. 

Section  VII.     Rules  relating  to  the 

Office  of  the  Monitor. 

I .    Every  Academical  student  in  the  Family  is  to  be  monitor 

in  his  turn  excepting  only  the  Senior  Class  for  the  time  being, 

and  if  any  of  them  shall,  in  his  turn,  choose  to  officiate  as 

monitor  his  assistance  shall  be  thankfully  accepted. 


152  Appendix  III 

2.  The  monitor  is  to  call  up  every  student  at  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  winter  and  summer,  Vacation  times  only 
excepted,  and  having  rung  the  bell  twice  at  ten  minutes  after 
six  is  to  call  over  all  the  names,  distinguishing  on  his  bill  those 
who  are  absent  and  for  every  quarter  of  an  hour  for  which  he 
delays  he  is  to  forfeit  two  pence.  He  is  also  to  call  over  his 
list  before  morning  and  evening  prayer  as  above,  as  also  before 
all  Lectures  appointed  for  the  whole  Academy,  together,  and 
if  he  fail  to  do  it . . .  he  is  to  forfeit  sixpence  for  every  such 
failure. 

3.  He  is  to  review  the  Library  on  Saturday  at  3  in  the 
afternoon  and  to  call  over  the  catalogue  of  the  books  wanting, 
according  to  Section  VI.  No.  7,  under  a  forfeiture  of  a  shilling 
and  he  is  to  see  that  a  pen  and  ink  be  left  in  the  Library  for 
public  use. 

4.  He  is  to  lay  up  the  Bibles  and  Psalm  books  after  prayer 
in  the  cupboard . . .  and  as  an  acknowledgment  for  that  trouble 
is  to  claim  one  farthing  for  every  one  who  shall  neglect  to  bring 
his  Psalm  book  with  him  at  those  times,  if  he  choose  generally 
to  keep  it  in  his  closet. 

5.  The  monitor  is  to  have  an  eye  on  the  door  to  see  whether 
any  one  goes  out  during  divine  service  and  to  inform  the  Tutor 
of  it  and  is  to  send  the  junior  pupil  present  to  call  the  Tutor 
if  in  the  House  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  call  over  the  names. 

Section  VIII.     Rules  relating  to  Conduct 
Abroad. 

1.  No  student  is  to  go  into  a  Publick  House  to  drink 
there  on  penalty  of  a  public  censure  for  the  first  time  and  the 
forfeiture  of  a  shilling  the  second  ;  unless  some  particular 
occasion  arise  which  shall,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Tutor,  be 
deemed  a  sufi&cient  reason. 

2.  No  one  is  to  begin  a  P.M.  at  any  place  in  the  town  with- 
out the  knowledge  and  approbation  of  the  Tutor. 

3.  If  any  one  spread  reports  abroad  to  the  dishonour  of 
the  family  or  any  member  of  it  he  must  expect  a  public  reproof 
and  to  hear  a  caution  given  to  others  to  beware  of  placing  any 
confidence  in  him. 


Appendix  III  153 


Section  IX.     Miscellaneous  Rules  not  comprehended 

UNDER    THE    FORMER   SECTIONS. 

3.  When  the  small  pecuniary  fines  here  appointed  evi- 
dently appear  to  be  despised,  they  will  be  exchanged  for  some 
extraordinary  exercises,  which,  if  they  are  not  performed,  must 
occasion  complaint  to  the  Friends  of  the  student  in  question  ; 
for  the  intent  of  these  laws  is  not  to  enrich  the  box  at  the 
expense  of  those  who  are  determined  to  continue  irregular  but 
to  prevent  any  from  being  so. 

5.  Accounts  with  the  Tutor  are  to  be  balanced  twice  a 
year  and  all  bills  from  tradesmen,  if  such  there  be,  are  to  be 
delivered  in  to  the  Tutor  by  the  persons  from  whom  they  are 
due,  at  the  seasons  at  which  they  respectively  know  their 
accounts  are  to  be  made  up. 

6.  No  student  is  to  board  abroad  unless  at  the  desire  and 
under  the  direction  of  the  tutor.  And  those  who  do  so  board 
abroad  are,  nevertheless,  to  attend  family  prayers  and  lectures 
at  the  appointed  times. 

7.  The  news  bought  for  the  use  of  the  family  is  to  be  padd 
for  out  of  the  box. 


9.  In  the  absence  of  the  Principal  Tutor  the  Assistant 
Tutor  is  to  be  regarded  as  his  deputy . .  .  etc. 

10.  ...  If  any  gentlemen,  not  intended  for  the  ministry 
. . .  take  up  their  abode  amongst  us,  whatever  their  rank  in 
life  be,  it  is  expected  and  insisted  upon  that  they  govern  them- 
selves by  these  rules,  excepting  those  which  directly  relate  to 
exercises  preparatory  to  the  ministry . . .  etc. 

P.  Doddridge,  D.D.  Dec.  loth,  1743. 

T.  Brabant. 

We  whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed  do  hereby  declare 
our  Acquiescence  in  these  Constitutions,  Orders  and  Rules  as 
the  terms  of  our  respective  Admission  into  or  continuance  in 
the  Academy  at  Northampton. 

Then  follow  63  signatures. 


154  Appendix  IV 


APPENDIX  IV 

WARRINGTON    (PERIOD   III)    LIBRARY 

Source.  '  Select  Catalogue  of  Books  in  the  Library  belong- 
ing to  the  Warrington  Academy,'  printed  by  Eyres  for  the 
academy  in  1775. 

The  catalogue  is  arranged  under  subjects  as  follows  : 

1.  Greek  and  Roman  Classics,  70  titles  (separate  volumes 

not  counted). 

2.  Translations,  19. 

3.  Dictionaries,  Grammars  (Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French, 

Italian),  36 — among  which  are  Priestley's  Grammar, 
Seddon's  Lectures  on  Grammar,  Ward's  Essays  on  the 
English  Language. 

4.  Biography,  50.     The  following,  chosen  at  random,  ex- 

hibit a  catholic  taste :  Lives  of  the  Professors  of  Gresham 
College — Lives  of  the  Philosophers,  Voltaire's  Charles  XII, 
Cromwell,  Pope  Sextus  V,  Mahomet,  Ignatius,  Sully, 
Descartes,  Memoires  de  Philippe  de  Commines. 

5.  History,  Chronology,  Geography,  Voyages,  Travels,  82. 

This  list  is  interesting  as  showing  what  means  the 
students  had  of  reading  in  these  modem  subjects  and  is 
therefore  given  in  full  (see  next  page) . 

Mathematics,  Natural  Philosophy,  etc.,  81. 

Politics,  Commerce  and  Law,  40. 

Sermons,  41. 

Morals  and  Metaphysics,  25. 

Evidences  of  Christianity  and  Ecclesiastical  History,  67. 

Theological  and  Scripture  Criticism,  85. 

Miscellanies,  78  (given  in  full). 


7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 


Appendix  IV  155 

Complete  List  of  Books  in  Section  5 — History, 
Geography,  etc. 

Kircheri's  Chinae  Historia. 

Purchas's  Pilgrim,  5  vols. 

Prideaux's  Introduction  to  History. 

History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Thuani  Historia,  4  vols. 

Macaulay's  History  of  England,  4  vols. 

Hume's  History  of  England,  8  vols. 

Vertot's  Roman  Revolution,  2  vols. 

Fresnoy  on  History,  2  vols. 

Ludlow's  Memories,  3  vols. 

Buonamici's  Commentaries  on  the  Wars  of  Italy. 

Swift's  Memoirs  of  the  four  last  years  of  Queen  Anne. 

Strauchius's  Chronology. 

Holberg's  Introduction  to  Universal  History,  by  Sharp. 

Methodus  Legendi  Historiae,  A.  Wheer. 

Philips's  Account  of  Malabar. 

Bernier's  History  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul. 

Mainbourgh's   Histoire   de  la  Decadence  de  I'Empire  apr^ 

Charlemagne. 
FonteneUe's  History  of  Sweden. 
Spon's  History  of  Germany. 
Nicholson's  English  Historical  Library. 
Ricaut's  History  of  Peru. 
Le  Bruyn's  Travels. 
Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 
Newton's  Chronology. 
Hooke's  Roman  History,  4  vols. 
Buchanani  opera,  2  vols. 
Robertson's  History  of  Scotland,  2  vols. 

History  of  Charles  II,  3  vols. 

Bacon's  History  of  Henry  VII. 
Rapin's  History  of  England,  21  vols. 

La  Motte's  Animadversion  upon  ancient  Historians. 
Puffendorf's  History  of  Sweden. 

Introduction  to  History,  3  vols. 


156  Appendix  IV 

De  Wit's  Republic  of  Holland. 

Savage's  History  of  Germany. 

Sprat's  History  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Bolingbroke  on  the  Study  of  History. 

Temple's  Works, 

Pitt's  History  of  the  Mahometans. 

Montesquieu's  Reflections  on  Rome. 

Josephus's  Works,  6  vols. 

Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg. 

Malley's  Observations  on  the  Romans. 

Gleidanus  de  quatuor  Imperils. 

Magna  Charta. 

Davies's  Introduction  for  History. 

Martinii  Historia. 

Harris's  Voyages  and  Travels,  2  vols. 

Blair's  Chronology. 

Antient  and  Modern  Universal  History,  65  vols. 

Goldsmith's  History  of  England,  4  vols. 

Kennet's  Roman  Antiquities. 

Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece. 

Verenius's  Geography,  2  vols. 

Lockman's  Jesuit,  travels,  2  vols. 

Memoirs  of  PoUnitz,  4  vols. 

Geographia  Classica. 

Gage's  Survey  of  the  West  Indies. 

Burnet's  Travels  through  Italy  and  Switzerland. 

Warwick's  Memoirs  of  Charles  II. 

History  of  the  East  Indies. 

Ray's  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries,  2  vols. 

Jennings  on  the  Use  of  Globes. 

Bacon's  History  of  England. 

Stowe's  Survey  of  London. 

History  of  Switzerland. 

History  of  Denmark. 

History  of  Sweden. 

Reign  of  James  I,  by  Overbury. 

Rolhn's  Antient  History,  10  vols. 

Letters  on  History  of  English,  2  vols. 


Appendix  IV  157 


Pomponius  Mela  de  Situ  Orbis. 

Reign  of  Richard  II. 

Hayward's  Reign  of  Edward  VI. 

Ray's  Journey  through  Germany,  Italy  and  France. 

Les  Voyages  de  Ta vernier,  2  vols. 

Campbell's  Present  State  of  Europe. 

La  Houtan's  Voyages  to  North  America,  2  vols. 

Herrira's  History  of  America,  6  vols. 

Marigny's  History  of  the  Arabians,  4  vols. 

Lyttelton's  Life  of  Henry  II,  6  vols. 

Miscellanies. 
Gil  Bias,  4  vols. 
Shakespeare's  Works,  9  vols. 
Tales  of  a  Tub. 
Osborne's  Works. 
Bacon's  Remains. 

Batteaux's  Principes  de  la  Litt6rature,  5  vols. 
Oeuvres  de  Rapin,  3  vols. 
Oeuvres  de  Fontenelle,  2  vols. 
Oeuvres  de  Boileau,  3  vols. 
Clerici  ars  critica. 
Dodsley's  Poems,  6  vols. 
Gray's  Poems. 
Prior's  Poems,  2  vols. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained,  2  vols. 
Pope's  Works,  6  vols. 
Thomson's  Works,  4  vols. 

Baker's  Medalla  Portarum  Romanorum,  2  vols. 
Akenside's  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination. 
Boileau's  Works,  2  vols. 
Young's  Night  Thoughts. 
Hudibras. 

Bruydre's  Works,  2  vols. 
Letters  concerning  Mythology. 
Ray's  English  Proverbs. 
Chaucer's  Tales. 
Hughes's  Miscellany. 


158  Appendix  IV 

Dryden's  Fables. 

Occasional  Papers,  2  vols. 

Shaftesbury's  Characteristics. 

Fontenelle's  Dialogues  of  the  Dead. 

Reflections  on  Poetry  and  Painting. 

Kain's  Elements  of  Criticism,  3  vols. 

Fordyce's  Dialogues  on  Education. 

Mrs   Montague's   Remarks   on  the   Writings   and   Genius   of 

Shakespeare. 
Rapin's  Critical  Works,  2  vols. 
Young's  Love  of  Fame. 
Hogarth's  Analysis  of  Beauty. 
Middleton's  Works,  4  vols. 
Sheridan  on  Elocution. 
Hill's  Review  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Boflfu  on  Epic  Poetry. 
Lettres  du  Voiture. 
Waller's  Poems. 
Instructive  Histories,  2  vols. 
Spence  on  Pope's  Odyssey. 
Cato's  Letters,  4  vols. 

Erasmus's  Apothegms  of  the  Antients,  2  vols. 
Independent  Whig,  4  vols. 
The  Guardian,  2  vols. 
Addison's  Miscellanies,  4  vols. 
Freeholder. 

Private  Life  of  the  Romans. 
Goldsmith's  Essays. 

Kurd's  Commentaries  on  Horace,  3  vols. 
Webb  on  Poetry. 
Gerard  on  Taste. 
Spectator,  8  vols. 
World,  4  vols. 
PhiUps's  Poems. 
Mason's  Poems. 

Wharton's  Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  of  Pope. 
Fitzosbome's  Letters. 
Burke  on  Subhme  and  Beautiful. 


Appendix  V  159 

Lyttelton's  Dialogues  of  the  Dead. 

Harris's  Treatises  on  Art,  Music,  Painting  and  Poetry,  Happi- 
ness. 
Rice  on  Reading. 
Letters  concerning  Taste. 
Ward's  Oratory,  2  vols. 
Swift's  Miscellany,  2  vols. 
Congreve's  Works,  2  vols. 
Cambray  on  Eloquence 
Nourfe's  Essays. 
Locke's  Familiar  Letters. 
Halifax's  Works. 
Cousinus  de  Eloquentia. 
Peddon's  Lectures  on  Oratory,  ms.,  2  vols. 
Blount's  Remarks  on  Poetry. 
Cowley's  Works. 


APPENDIX  V 

STUDENTS  AT  WARRINGTON    (PERIOD   III) 

Source.     List  of  Students  in  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  ix. 
Total  Number,  1757-1782,  is  393  (see  table  p.  160). 


Entered  for  Law 

22 

„           „    Medicine 

24 

„           „    Divinity 

52 

„           „    Commerce 

98 

Course  not  specified  . . 

197 

'  Commerce  '  seems  to  indicate  merchants,  bankers,  etc.  ; 
brewers,  shopkeepers — all  '  tradesmen  '  are  among  the  '  un- 
specified '  and  also  many  who  entered  the  army  and  some 
who  were  '  country  gentlemen.'  These  had  a  good  '  general ' 
education. 


i6o  Appendix  V 

STUDENTS  AT  EXETER    (1760  PERIOD   III) 

Source,     ms.  in  Dr  Williams's  Library, 
Total  Number  on  list  is  93.     Among  those  whose  calling  is 
given  are 

6  attorneys  or  barristers. 
4  ministers^. 

7  physicians. 

24  merchants  or  '  trade.' 
7  navy  or  navy  office  men. 
13  esquires. 

2  apothecaries. 

3  army  men. 

Table  showing  number  of  students  entered  for  various  causes  in 
different  years  at  Warrington,  1757-1782. 
Year        Medicine     Law    Divinity   Commerce    Unspecified    Total 


1757 

I 

— 

I 

3 

— 

5 

1758 

3 

— 

3 

6 

6 

18 

1759 

I 

I 

5 

2 

7 

16 

1760 

I 

— 

7. 

5 

4 

12 

I76I 

I 

3 

2 

7 

4 

17 

1762 

— 

— 

4 

4 

I 

9 

1763 

2 

— 

I 

4 

4 

II 

1764 

I 

— 

— 

12 

5 

18 

1765 

2 

— 

I 

II 

8 

22 

1766 

— 

— 

I 

5 

9 

15 

1767 

— 

— 

I 

— 

8 

9 

1768 

— 

I 

2 

5 

8 

16 

1769 

— 

2 

3 

6 

7 

18 

1770 

I 

— 

2 

— 

5 

8 

I77I 

— 

2 

— 

5 

13 

20 

1772 

2 

I 

I 

3 

16 

23 

1773 

I 

— 

2 

I 

3 

7 

1774 

— 

2 

3 

2 

5 

12 

1775  ( 

I776\ 

2 

4 

3 

3 

II 

23 

1777 

3 

— 

6 

3 

II 

23 

1778 

— 

3 

2 

9 

13 

27 

1779 

— 

3 

I 

I 

18 

23 

1780 

— 

I 

3 

I 

14 

19 

1781 

I 

I 

3 

— 

9 

14 

1782 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8 

8 

22  24  52  98  197  393 

*  A  list  in  the  Monthly  Repository,  Vol.  xiii.  is  different;    12 
ministers  are  mentioned  and  only  49  names  are  given. 


Appendix  VI  i6i 


APPENDIX  VI 

Priestley's  suggestions  for  study  of  history 
and  geography 

Source.  Miscellaneous  works  containing  Essay  on  Educa- 
tion and  Syllabuses  of  lectures  in  History  given  at  Warrington. 

The  following  extracts  from  Priestley's  syllabuses  show  his 
treatment  of  History  in  his  lectures. 

Syllabus  of  Course  of  Lectures  on  the 
Study  of  History. 

I.       General  Uses  of  history. 

II.  Sources  of  history  in  oral  traditions,  poems,  monuments, 
coins.  Heraldry,  use  of  archives,  books  not  properly 
history,  language. 
III.  What  is  necessary  or  useful  to  be  known  previous  to  the 
Study  of  History — philosophical  knowledge  in  general, 
Geography,  Chronology,  methods  of  the  estimation 
of  riches  and  power  of  ancient  nations — money  values 
etc. 
IV,  Directions  for  facilitating  the  study  of  history — Compen- 
diums.  Chronology,  tables,  Sturt's  tables,  Chart, 
History  of  biography.  Fortifications  explained — 
model  cut  in  wood. 

V.  Order  in  which  histories  may  be  read  and  method  of  studying 
English  History — Gildas,  Bede,  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth, Matthew  Paris,  R.  Higden,  Froissart,  Thomas 
of  Walsingham,  William  Caxton,  John  Ross,  Robert 
Fabian . . .  Hollingshead . . .  Clarendon,  Whitlock  and 
Ludlow,  Burnet,  Rapin,  Hume,  Robertson,  Histories 
of  particular  Uves  and  reigns — of  WiUiam  the  Con- 
queror, by  William  of  Poictiers;  Edward  II,  by 
Thomas  de  la  More ;    Henry  V,  by  Titus  Livius  ; 

p.  D.  A.  II 


1 62  Appendix  VI 

Edward  IV,  by  Haddington  ;  Edward  V,  by  Sir 
Thomas  More  ;  Henry  VII,  by  Sir  Francis  Bacon  ; 
Henry  VIII,  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  ;  Edward 
VI's  own  diary ;  Elizabeth,  by  Camden.  Lives 
written  by  Harris  and  others.  Ecclesiastical  writers, 
Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation,  Cranmer's 
Memorials,  Littleton  and  Coke;  Year  Books;  Reports; 
records ;  proclamations. 
VI.  The  most  important  objects  of  attention  to  a  Reader  of 
History — Biography — cause  and  effect  should  be 
noted  in  all  changes  of  human  affairs.  Ancient  and 
European  History  ;  English  History  ;  most  interest- 
ing periods  in  the  history  of  Literature  and  Arts 
from  earliest  antiquity  to  the  present  time ;  History 
of  Commerce ;  government  despotism  ;  advantages 
of  democracy.  English  government  traced  from  the 
constitution  of  the  ancient  German  States ....  How 
feuds  became  hereditary. .  .how  the  clergy  became 
an  essential  part  of  the  state. . .  method  of 
administering  justice. . .  .Feudal  system. . .  .Rise  of 
Corporations ....  Decline  of  Feudalism  not  equal  in 
all  parts. . .  .Expenses  of  government. .  .necessity  of 
attention  to  agriculture . . .  fisheries . . .  balance  of 
trade — interfering  of  the  legislature  in  commerce — 
Navigation  Acts ;  use  of  colonies ;  uniformity  of 
weights  and  measures  ;  dreadful  consequence  of  a 
total  depravity  of  manners  ;  Gaming  ;  Education  ; 
food ;  dress  and  habitation ;  ramparts ;  methods  of 
fighting,  etc. 

'  Together  with  the  study  of  history,  I  would 
advise  that  more  attention  be  given  to  Geography 
than  I  believe  is  generally  given  to  it ;  particularly  to 
. . .  commercial  geography,  exhibiting  the  state  of 
the  world  with  respect  to  commerce,  pointing  out 
the  most  advantageous  situations  for  carrying  it  on ; 
and  more  especially  noting  those  articles  in  the 
Natural  History  of  countries  which  are,  or  may  be, 
the  proper  subjects  of  commerce.     This  branch  of 


Appendix  VI  163 

knowledge  is  as  yet  very  much  confined.  We  are 
probably  strangers  to  some  of  the  most  useful  pro- 
ductions of  the  earth  on  which  we  live,  but  a  general 
attention  once  excited  to  the  subject  by  teaching  it 
to  youth  in  all  places  of  liberal  education  would  be 

the  best  provision  for  extending  it a  knowledge 

of  chemistry  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  extension 
of  this  useful  branch  of  science  (commercial  geo- 
graphy).' 


INDEX 


'  A  Light  to  Grammar . . .  opening 
the  door  thereunto'     38,  39 

'A  Gate  to  Sciences. .  .creatures 
there'    38 

Academies,  Courtly     16,  17,  20, 

53.  134 
Dissenting — for  separate  Aca- 
demies   see    under    place 
name ;  origin  and  growth 
of  etc.    46-56 

I.  Period,  aims  of  and  work 
in    57.  58.  74.  75 

II.  Period,  aims  of  and  work 
in  57,  75-77,  loi,  102 

III.  Period,  aims  of  and  work 
in    57.  104 

compared  with  Calvin's  Aca- 
demy 53,  54 

compared  with  Universities 
132,  134 

an  educational  system  46, 
124,   125,  136 

influence  of,  on  EngUsh 
thought    126 

development  in  46,  63, 
127 

rationalism  in     125,  135 

modem    subjects    in      133, 

135 
decline  of     136 
Puritan    endeavours    to    pull 
down    32,  33 
Academy,  meaning  of  term  51- 

53  " 

Calvin's    53 

Milton's    34 
Act  of  Uniformity    47 

Five  Mile  47,  57,  59,  63,  64 

Toleration    65 
'  Advice  of  W.  P.  to  Mr  S.  HartUb 

. .  .Learning    35 
Aikin,  John    95,    106,    108-112 

John,  Jun.    120 


Algebra    78,  79,  86,  99 

Anatomy    19,  35,  69,  75,  78,  112 

Aristotle     18 

Arithmetic    10,  36 

Ashe,  Rev.  John,  Life  of    65,  67 

Ashmolean  Museum     75 

Ashworth,  Caleb    51,  95,  96,  103, 

112 
Astronomy    10,   13,   15 
Attercliffe  Academy    77,  97 

Bacon,  Francis    20,29,30,42,134 
Barnes,  Dr    120 
Bates'  Case    49 
Bathurst,  Ralph    21 
Beginnings,  The,  of  the  Teaching 

of      Modern      Subjects      in 

England    23 
Belles  Lettres    112,  114,  119 
Benion,  Samuel    73 
Bethnal  Green  Academy    60 
Book-keeping    109 
Botany    19,  36 
Bowles,  John    100 
Boyle,  Robert    21 
Butler,     Joseph     96,     99,     126, 

130 
Analogy    126 
Button,  Ralph    57 

Calvin    24,  51,  52 
Calvin's  Academy    53 
Cambridge      University,      New 
Learning  at    13 

A  Divinity  School    14 

Ecclesiastical  atmosphere  of  16 

Ramism  at     20 

Greek  at    20 

Ciceronianism  in    29 

Chesterfield  on    127 
Chandler,  Samuel    96,  99,  126 
Chemistry    104,   112,   115 

Club  at  Oxford    21 


Index 


165 


Chesterfield    129 

Chorlton,  Rev.    68,  69 

Chorlton's  Academy  51,  69, 
121 

Ciceronianism    12,  18,  29,  39 

Civil  Law    16,   114,   129 

Clarendon  Code     43,  46,  47 

Classical  education  required  in 
Academies    55 

Classics    12,  13,  70,  109 

teaching  of  at  Northampton 
88.  89 

Clegg,  James    65,  67 

Comenius,  J.  A.  20,  26-30,  36, 
39,   134 

Commercial  or  business  educa- 
tion   105,  107,  121 

Committee  of  Protestant  Dis- 
senters   81 

Commonwealth    41,  42,  43 
Oxford  University  during    1 28 

Conatuum  Comenianorum  Prae- 
ludia    28 

Conformity  legislation  44,  47, 
48,   128 

Congregational  Fund  Board  54, 
76 

Considerations  .  .  .  Accomplish- 
ment...  England's  Reforma- 
tion '    40 

Coward's  College    96 

Cox's  Case    50 

Cromwell    34,  59,  64 

Daventry  Academy  95,  96,  103, 
112,  113 

'Defence  of  Dissenting  Educa- 
tion in  their  private  Acade- 
mies in  answer  to  Mr  Wesley's 
written  reflections  upon  them ' 
60 

Defoe    56,  60,  61,  126 

Discipline  in  Dissenting  Acade- 
mies   60,  84 

'Dissenting'  education    44,  118 

Divinity    16,  32,  55,  78,  87,  106 

Doddridge,  Philip  51,  76,  77,  80 
et  seq.,  95,  96,  loi,  102,  112, 
121 

Douse's  Case    50 

Drawing    36,  109 


Durham,  plan  for  University  at 

64 
Dury,  John     23,  26,  27,  40,  41 

Eames,  John    97 
Ecclesiastical  proceedings  against 

Frankland    67 
Education    34,  35,  38,  49,  53,  104 
a  'new'     53,   136 
Commercial    105,   107,  121 
Commonwealth  activity  in    42 
Dissenting    44,  118 
Practical    41 
Priestley's  Essay  on    104,  115, 

116 
Puritan  concern  for    24;   de- 
mand for  reformed     43 
Realistic,  in  Academies     133, 
135 
Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy 

"3 
Elyot,  Sir  Thos.     15,   134 
Enfield  Dr    109,   119 
Enfield's  Speaker  and  Exercises 

in  Elocution     120 
English     15,  20,  33,  76,  89,  90, 
102 
Composition    at    Sherrifihales 

71 
Exercises  in  II.  Period  Acade- 
mies   76 
Grammar,  Rudiments  of  113 
Lectures  at  Newington  Green 

(2)  61 
Literature  at  Warrington    1 1 1 
the  study  and  teaching  of   4, 
17,  104,  112,  114,  117 
Erasmus    14,  15,  20 
Essay  on  Human  Understanding 

113 
Essay  on  Pedantry    15 
Ethics    55,  69,  75,  131,  132 
Exeter  Academy    121,  122 

Fees  at  Kibworth  Academy  79 
at  Northampton  Academy  82 
at  Trinity  College,  Oxford  83 
at  Warrington  Academy  106 

Findern  Academy    74 

Five  Mile  Act    47,  57,  59,  63,  64 

Fleming,  Henry    74,  132 


i66 


Index 


Forster,  J.  Reinhold    109,  112 
Francke    135 

Frankland,  Richard    64  et  seq. 
French    17,  61,  63,  78,  102,  no, 
112,  114,  116.  133 

Gale,  Theophilus    62 

The,  Exhibition    62 
*  Gate,  a  to  Sciences . . .  creatures 

there'    38 
Geography    5,  10,  13,  15,  60,  63, 

75,  78,  86,  102,  104,  112,  117, 

134 
Geometry  (or  Euclid)   10,  19,  20, 

36,  78,  80,  86,  99,  131,  132 
German  (High  Dutch)     17,  112, 

133 
Gibbon,  Edward    130 
Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey  16,  20,  53 
'  Govemour,  Boke  named  the'  15, 

16 
Grammar,    teaching  of   English 
117 
influence  of  Ciceronianism  on 

Latin,  12,   13 
Holmes'  Latin    117 
the  Oxford  Latin    58 
Priestley's       Rudiments       of 

English    113,   117 
Lowth's  (English)    117 
Universal,  lectures  on    114 
Schools — curriculum      3,     9  ; 
methods  4  ;   Church  control 
3.  50;  Ciceronianism  in  13; 
decay  of  in    i8th   century 
127 
Schools,  St  Paul's,  time-table 

8;    Decline  of     127 
Schools,  Eton,  time-table     6 
Schools,  Winchester,  decline  of 
127 
Greek    5,  16,  55,  61,  63,  88,  89, 

99,   no,   112,   114,   129 
Gresham  College    26,  42 

Harley,  Robert    71 

Hartlib,  Samuel  25,  26,  28  etseq., 

53.   134.  135 
Harvard  College    62 
Hebrew    5,  16,  55,  61,  63,  78,  98, 

no,  112 


Henry,  Philip    73 
Heywood,  OUver    68,  69 
High  Dutch  (German)    17,  112, 

133 
History    5,    13,   15,   36,  60,  63, 

75,  87,   102,   104,  112.  133 
'History     and     Antiquities     of 
Dissenting    Churches ...  in 
London. .  .  '    49 
of  Castle  Hill  Church,  North- 
ampton   80 
Holt,  John    106 
Hood,  Thos.    20 
Hoole,  Charles    38 
Home,  Thos.    27 
How,  S.    33 
'Humane  Learning  no  help  to 

Spiritual. .  .word  of  God'  33 
Humanism    14,   15,   19,  52 
Humanistic  studies    36,  133 
Hydrostatics    78 

Islington  (i)  Academy     51,  63; 

(2)  Academy    63 
Inspection,  diocesan,  of  teachers 

48 
ItaUan    61,  63,  112,   114,   133 

Janua  Linguarum    27 
Janua  Rerum    28 
Jennings,  Rev.  J.    77-79,  92,  96, 
100 

David    82 
Jewish  Antiquities     55,  62,   78, 

100 
Jollie,  Timothy    97,  100 

Kibworth  Academy     76-79 
King's  Head  Society    54 
Knells  Academy    97 
Knox,  John    53 

Lancashire  Nonconformity    93 
Latin    3,  5,  16,  33,  34,  58,  61,  76, 
78,    88,    89,    99,    no,    112, 
130 
Grammar,  the  Oxford    58 
Grammar,  Holmes'     117 
grammars,  increase  of    13 
La  Tour,  M.     109 
Law    II,   17,  32,  58,  70.  So 


Index 


167 


'Letter  from  a  country  Divine 

...  on  Education  of  Dissenters 

in  their  private  Academies .  . . 

nation '    59 

Leyden  University    97,  99 

Licence,  Bishop's,  to  teach  49,  50 

'Light,  a,  to  Grammar.  .  .  '  38,  39 

'  Likeliest   means   to .  .  .  hirelings 

.  .  .Church'    33 
Literary  Workhouse    36 
Locke,  John    98,  113,  125,  135 
Logic    5,  10,  16,  55,  60,  63,  69, 
75,  86,  98,  131 

Manchester  New  College  109,  120 

College,  Oxford    121 
Mathematics    18,  19,  20,  60,  63, 

69,  76,  78,  97,  99,  119 
Mechanics    78 
Medicine    11,  19,  58,  70,  129  {see 

also  physic(A)) 
Mercer,  Samuel,  letter  from    93 
Merrivale,  Samuel     95,  121 
Merton,  Walter  de    10 
Metaphysics    55,  75 
Milton.    31,  33,  34,  36,  71,  87, 

134 

Modern  Languages  61,  109 
{see  also  French,  German, 
Italian) 

Montaigne    15,  134 

Monthly  Repository  107,110,118 

Moral  philosophy     16,  17,  106 

More  Short  Ways  with  Dissenters 
56 

Morton,  Charles    58-62 

Mulcaster    134 

Music    10,  22,  36 

Natural  history    5,   109,  112 
philosophy    16,  55,  60,  75,  86, 
106 
Nature  study    37 
Newington   Green  (i)  Academy 
62,  63 
(2)  Academy    58,  62,  63,  69; 
modern  subjects  at     63 
Northampton  Academy    77,  79- 
96,    lOI 
Classics  at  88,  89 
Discussions  at    103 


Northampton  Academy,  '  Tutori- 
als'  at    89,  102 

Object  lessons    37 

Oratory    114 

Orbis  Pictus    37 

Owen,  James    73 

Oxford  Oath    66 

Chemical  Club  at  21 
Physic-garden  at  21 
University,  Chesterfield  on 
1 29 ;  Ciceronianism  in  29 ; 
'  Determination '  methods 
130;  during  Common- 
wealth 34,  128;  during 
1 8th  century  1 29 ;  Mathe- 
matics at  20 ;  Magdalen 
censured  130;  Magdalen 
syllabus  for  'Collections' 
131 ;  Balliol  censured 
130;  Oriel  censured  130; 
H.  Fleming  at  Queen's 
74.  132 

Pattison,  Mark    125 

Perizonius,  James    97 

Petty,  Sir  Wm.    26,  34,  35,  134, 

135 

Philosophical  Criticism,  lectures 
on    114 

Pietists    135 

Plato    51,  53 

Pneumatology    78 

Popular  Education  in  Great 
Britain    50 

Priestley,  Joseph  88,  90,  103, 
104,   109,   112-119,   136 

Puritans  advocate  modern  sub- 
jects    I,  24,  31,  33,  53 

Physic-garden    16,  21 

Physic  16,  17,  32  {see  also 
Medicine) 

Physics     19,  69,  78,  131,  132 

Quadrivium     10,  ii,  13,  18,  52, 

.53.  63,  78.  86 
Quakers    32,  122 

Rabelais    15 

Ramism    19,  20 

Ramus,  Peter    17-20,  134 


1 68 


Index 


Rathmell  Academy    63-69 
Rationalism    125,  135 
Realism    27,  37,  39,  42,  136 
Realistic    College    in     London, 

plans  for    29 

Instruction,  demand  for    69 
Realists    29 
Reformed  School    40,  41 

Schoolmasters    41 
'  Reforming '  party  in  the  schools 

24 
Religious    test,    absence    of,    in 
Dissenting  Academies  49 

test  required  in  later  Dissent- 
ing Academies    135 
Renaissance    12-14 
Restoration    43,  54,  64 
Rhetoric    5,  10,  15,  16,  55, 69,  86 
Robinson  Crusoe     113 
Rotherham,  Caleb    116 

Savile,  Sir  Henry    20 

Schism  BUI    72,  100 

Science  18,39,61,63,78,102,134; 
development  of  in  England  20 

Seeker,  Thos.     96,  97,  98,   100 

Seddon,  J.    105,  109,  112,  119 

Sermon-writing    71 

Sharp,  Archbishop     66,  67 

SherifJhales  Academy     69-71 

Shorthand    92,  113 

Shrewsbury  Academy     72-74 

Smith,  Adam    130 
Sidney    131 

Social  life  in  Dissenting  Acade- 
mies   112 

Society,  the  Royal    22,  41 

Spanish    17,   133 

Stamford  University    66 

Sthael,  Peter    21 

St  John,  Henry    71 

Studies  subsidiary  to  Butler    126 

Studies  in  Oxford  History  chiefly 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century    129 

Sturm    52 

Tallents,  Francis    72 


Taylor,  Dr    106,  107,  118 
Tewkesbury  Academy    96-101 
Theology    11,  70,  76 
Theory  of  Languages    114 
Toleration  Act    65 
Tractate  on  Education     31,  52 
Travels  through  Sicily     109 
Trivium    9,   10,  18,  86 
Turner,  Dr    115 

Uniformity,  Act  of    46-48 

Legislation    124 
Unitarianism    108,   126,  135 
Universities,  origin  of    9 
course  at    10 
Church  control    14 
Ciceronianism  in    14,  133 
compared  with  Academies  132, 

134 
decline  of,  in  1 8th  century  127 
grants    made   by    Parliament 

to    41 
Humanism  in    133 

Vacations    79 

Vindication  of  Magdalen  College 
from  the  aspersions  of  Mr  Gib- 
bon   131 

Voyage  Round  the  World     109 

Wakefield,  Gilbert    109,   no 

Walker,  Rev.  Geo.    109,  119,  120 

Wallis,  J.    21 

Warrington  Academy    105-120 

Watts,  Isaac    79,  113 

Wesley-Palmer  Controversy    59 

Wesley,  Samuel    59-61,  63 

West  of  England  (Taunton)  Aca- 
demy   121 

Wharton,  Lord    72 

Wilkins,  Dr    58 

Witsius,  Hermann    97 

Wood,  Antony  21,  27,  32,  33, 
52,  128 

Woodhouse,  John    69,  70,  72 

Woodward,  Hezekiah    23,  37,  39 

Wren,  Christopher    21 


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